
Class. J J 
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THL GKEAT Sl'IlINX NEAR THE PYRAMIDS OF GIZEH. 

Frontispiece. 



A BRIEF HISTORY OF 
THE NATIONS AND OF THEIR 
PROGRESS IN CIVILIZATION H H, 

BY GEORGE PARK FISHER, D.D., LL.D. 
PROFESSOR IN YALE UNIVERSITY 



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NEW YORK:- CINCINNATI:- CHICAGO 
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 



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rs-v 



Copyright, 1896, by 
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY. 



GEN. HIST. — FISIIKR. 
E-P 1 



PREFACE 



Although this work is based on the author's larger work, 
the "Outlines of Universal History," which is designed for 
more advanced pupils, it is not a mere abridgment of that 
work, but a considerable portion of the matter is recast. In 
the present volume, the aim is to bring together the most 
important facts of history in their due order and connection, 
with the inclusion, as far as the space will permit, of such 
illustrative details as may prevent the narrative from being 
a dry summary — a skeleton without flesh and blood. Of 
course, a book which is intended for pupils and readers gener- 
ally should eschew everything that savors of the spirit of sect 
or party, and record only well-established judgments respecting 
persons and events. 

In the Introduction the author has aimed to present certain 
underlying facts of history and to explain the nature of his- 
torical evidence, and thus to open the way for a clear compre- 
hension of the narrative that follows. 

While the Ancient Period is treated with sufficient fullness 
to meet the wants of the pupils for whom the book is written, 
more room is given to the Mediaeval and Modern Periods than 
is customary in the books of this character. It is the author's 
conviction that the broad field of history since the fall of the 
Eoman Empire demands a larger space in popular instruction 
than is usually allotted to it. Neither the fact that the record 
becomes more complex as we approach the present time, nor 
the circumstance that we are more exposed to the necessity of 
treading upon ground disputed among disciples of diverse 



yi PREFACE 

political and theological creeds, should be allowed to cut off 
an adequate treatment of this portion of history, with which 
we are more immediately concerned. 

The idea of a General History has been carried out by con- 
necting, as far as practicable, in a single chain of narration, 
contemporary events in different countries where the several 
countries stand in so close a mutual relation that the events 
are interlinked. This method is specially appropriate in 
dealing with the Mediaeval Period. For example, the Empire 
and the Papacy are inseparably associated in the movement 
of the historic stream, and the fortunes of England and France 
are for a long period so interwoven that the history of each 
is intermingled with that of the other. Under this method 
a somcAvhat greater effort of attention and memory may here 
and there be required of the pupil ; but even if this be a dis- 
advantage it is more than made up by a counterbalancing gain. 
In general, it is possible to go too far in the direction of seek- 
ing to make even introductory studies in history easy to the 
learner. The main particulars attending the growth of nations 
and the rise and succession of their rulers may easily be 
learned in the years when the memory is specially alert and 
retentive. One may even err in excluding details on these 
topics which clearly explain historic changes for the sake of 
sparing a little more effort on the part of the learner. 

In the many divisions of so large a subject, great pains are 
requisite in order to incorporate the latest discoveries and 
corrections of historical explorers. While it is too much to 
hope that errors have been wholly escaped, it has been possible 
silently to introduce no small number of modifications of 
traditional statements which recent studies have made indis- 
pensable. The author, as in the Preface of his previous work, 
would here likewise acknowledge the large debt which he owes, 
especially in the Ancient and Mediaeval Periods, to Weber's 
copious LehrbucJi der Weltgeschichte. The historical maps to 
illustrate the text have been mostly drawn on the basis of 
maps in Spruner, Droysen, Putzger, Freeman, etc. George's 



PREFACE Vll 

Genealogical Tables have been of essential service. Valuable 
assistance in the labor of revision has been generously afforded 
the author by his friends and colleagues in different depart- 
ments of instruction in Yale University, — Professors Seymour, 
Morris, Hopkins, Peck, Adams, Bourne, Sanders, and Mr. 
F. W. Williams. The author would also express his obligation 
for important aid rendered by his son-in-law. Professor George 
Wharton Pepper, of the Law School of the University of Penn- 
sylvania. The Index, which includes a glossary of pronuncia- 
tion of proper names, and is so constructed as to be of service 
in reviews in the class-room, has been made in accordance with 
the author's plan, by an accurate scholar. Professor James A. 
Towle. 



LIST OF MAPS 



Ancient Egypt 25 

Babylonia and Assyria 38 

Ancient Palestine 48 

Greece 60 

Kingdom of Alexander the Great 98 

Kingdoms of Alexander's Successors 106 

Ancient Italy 112 

Roman Empire 142-143 

The New Nations after the Migrations 200-201 

Empire of Charlemagne 235 

Empire of Charlemagne, a.d. 843 240 

Empire of Charlemagne, a.d. 887 240 

Mediterranean Lands at the Time of the Crusades 270-271 

France and England, 1154-1189 287 

Italy about the Middle of the Sixteenth Century 388 

Central Europe, 1360 and 1660 402 

Europe about the Middle of the Eighteenth Century (1740) .... 441 

Europe about the Time of Napoleon's Greatest Power 488 

Central Europe in 1815 495 

France since 1871 528-529 

German Empire since 1871 534-535 

Turkish Empire, Greece, etc., since 1878 538-539 

Territorial Growth of the United States 544-545 

viii 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



CHAPTER PAGE 

I. Introduction 1 

ANCIENT HISTORY 

I. ORIENTAL NATIONS 

II. China 15 

III. India 21 

II. THE EARLIEST GROUP OF NATIONS 

IV. Egypt 24 

V. Assyria and Babylonia 37 

VI. The Phoenicians and Carthaginians . 46 

VII. The Hebrews 48 

VIII. The Persians 54 

III. GREECE 

IX. Introduction 59 

Period I. — Greece Prior to the Persian Wars 

X. The Prehistoric Age 62 

XL The Formation of the Principal States 71 

Period II. — The Flourishing Era of Greece 

XII. The Persian Wars 77 

XIIL The Ascendency of Athens 80 

XIV. The Peloponnesian War 89 

XV. Relations with Persia ; The Spartan and Theban Hegemony 95 

Period III. — The Macedonian Era 

XVI. Philip and Alexander 99 

XVII. The Successors of Alexander . 105 

ix 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

IV. ROME PAGE 

CHAPTKR 

XVin. Introduction ^^ 

Period I. — Rome under the Kings and the Patricians 

XIX. Rome under the Kings 117 

XX. Rome under the Patricians 125 

Period II. —To the Union of Italy 

XXI. Conquest of the Latins and Italians 129 

XXII. War with Pyrrhus and Union of Italy 131 

Period III. — The Punic Wars 

XXIII. The First and Second Punic Wars 134 

XXIV. Conquest of Macedonia ; The Third Punic .War ; The 

Destruction of Corinth 141 

Period IV. — The Era of Revolution and of the Civil Wars 
XXV. The Gracchi ; The First Mithridatic War ; Marius and 

Sulla 147 

XXVI. Pompeius and the East ; To the Death of Crassus . . 154 
XXVII. Pompeius and Caesar ; The Second Triumvirate ... 161 

Period V. — The Imperial Monarchy 

XXVIII. The Reign of Augustus 167 

XXIX. The Emperors of the Augustan House 177 

XXX. The Flavians and the Antonines 182 

XXXI. The Emperors made by the Soldiers ; The Absolute 

Monarchy ; The Downfall of Heathenism 190 



MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 
XXXII. Introduction 199 

Period I. — From the Migrations of the Teutonic Tribes to 
the Carolingian Line of Frankish Rulers 

XXXIII. Causes of the Fall of the Western Empire ; The Teu- 

tonic Confederacies 203 

XXXIV. The Teutonic Migrations and Kingdoms 208 

XXXV. The Eastern Empire 219 

XXXVI. Mohammedanism and the Arabic Conquests .... 225 

Period II. — From the Carolingian Line of Frankish Kings 

to the Romano-Germanic Empire 

XXXVII. The Carolingian Empire to the Death of Charlemagne . 234 



TABLE OF CONTENTS XI 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XXXVIII. Dissolution of Charlemagne's Empire ; Rise of the 

Kingdoms of France, Germany, and Italy . . . 241 
XXXIX. Invasions of the Northmen and Others ; The Feudal 

System 245 

Period III. —From the Establishment of the Romano- 
Germanic Empire to the End of the Crusades 
XL. The Church and the Empire ; Predominance of the 

Empire ; To the Crusades, a.d. 1096 258 

XLI. The Church and the Empire ; Predominance of the 

Church ; To the End of the Crusades, a.d. 1270 . . 266 
XLII. England and France ; The First Period of their Rival- 
ship (1066-1217) 288 

XLIII. Rise of the Burgher Class ; Society in the Era of the 

Crusades 297 

Period IV. — From the End of the Crusades to the Fall 

of Constantinople 

XLIV. England and France ; Second Period of Rivalship ; 

The Hundred Years' War (1270-1453) 306 

XLV. Germany ; Italy ; Spain ; The Scandinavian Countries ; 
Poland and Russia ; Hungary ; Ottoman Turks ; The 

Greek Empire 323 

XLVI. The Countries of Eastern Asia 342 

MODERN HISTORY 
XL VII. Introduction 347 

Period I. — From the Fall of Constantinople to the 
Reformation 
XL VIII. France ; England ; Spain ; Germany ; Italy ; The Otto- 
man Turks ; Russia ; The Invasions of Italy . . . 349 
XLIX. Invention and Discovery ; The Renaissance .... 365 

Period II. — The Era of the Reformation 

L. The Reformation in Germany, to the Treaty of Nurem- 
berg (1517-1532) 374 

LI. The Reformation in Teutonic Countries : Switzerland, 

Denmark, Sv^eden, England 381 

LII. The Reformation in Germany, from the Peace of Nu- 
remberg to the Peace of Augsburg (1532-1555) . . 386 



Xll 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



CIIAPTEU PAGE 

LIII. Calvinism in Geneva; Beginning of the Catholic Counter- 
Reformation 389 

LIV. Philip II. and the Revolt of the Netherlands 391 

LV. The Civil Wars in France, to the Death of Henry IV. 

(I(;i0) 393 

LVI. The Thirty Years' War, to the Peace of Westphalia (1618- 

1648) 397 

LVII. Second Stage of the Reformation in England ; To the 

Death of Elizabeth (1547-1603) ^.403 

LVIII. The English Revolution and the Commonwealth (1603- 

1658) 410 

LIX. Colonization in America ; Asiatic Nations ; Culture and 

Literature (1517-1648) 417 

Period III. — From the Peace of Westphalia to the 
French Revolution (1648-1789) 

LX. Introduction 424 

LXI. The Preponderance of France ; First Part of the Reign of 
Louis XIV. (to the Peace of Ryswick, 1697) ; The Res- 
toration of the Stuarts ; The English Revolution of 1688 425 
LXII. War of the Spanish Succession (to the Peace of Utrecht, 
1713) ; Decline of the Power of France ; Power and 

Maritime Supremacy of England 434 

LXIII. The Great Northern War ; The Fall of Sweden ; Growth 

of the Power of Russia 439 

LXIV. War of the Austrian Succession ; Growth of the Power 

of Prussia ; The Destruction of Poland 442 

LXV. Contest of France and England in America ; War of 
American Independence ; The Constitution of the 

United States 448 

LXVI. Literature, Science, and Religion 460 

Period IV. — The Era of the French Revolution 

LXVII. Introduction 464 

LXVIII. The States General ; The National and Legislative Assem- 
blies ; War with Austria and Prussia ; Trial and Exe- 
cution of the King (1789-1793) 465 

LXIX. Politics in England ; The Jacobin Revolution ; Reign of 

Terror in France (Jan. 21, 1793-July 27, 1794) ... 473 
LXX. The Directory ; The Career of Napoleon to the Establish- 
ment of the Empire (1794-1804) 479 



TABLE OF CONTENTS Xlll 

CHAPTER PAGE 

LXXI. The Empire of Napoleon : To the Russian Campaign 

(1804-1812) 485 

LXXII. The Kussian Campaign (1812) ; Fall of Napoleon ; 

Waterloo ; Abdication of Napoleon (1814-15) . . . 490 
LXXIII. American History in this Period (1789-1815) . ... 496 

Period V. — From the Congress of Vienna (1815) to the 
Present Time 
LXXIV. Introduction 504 

LXXV. Europe, from the Congress of Vienna (1815) to the 

French Revolution of 1830 507 

LXXVI. Europe, from the Revolution of 1830 to the Revolu- 
tionary Epoch of 1848 510 

LXXVII. Europe, from the Revolutions of 1848 to the Austro- 

Prussian War (1866) 515 

LXXVIII. Europe, from the Beginning of the Austro-Prussian 
War to the End of the Franco-German War (1866- 

1871) 520 

LXXIX. Europe, from the Third French Republic, and the 

Union of Italy (1871) , 527 

LXXX. The United States since 1815 ; Mexico ; South Ameri- 
can States ; Eastern Asia 543 

LXXXI. Discovery and Invention ; Science and Literature ; 
Progress of Humane Sentiment ; Progress towards 
the Unity of Mankind 561 

INDEX 567 



GEI^ERAL HISTORY 



CHAPTER I 

INTRODUCTION 

Definition of History. — History is the narrative of past 
events in which men have had a part. It is the story of the 
past. It is not a bare chronicle of occnrrences, but it aims to 
point out their connection with one another, or their causes and 
effects. Biography gives an account of the life of the individ- 
ual. What it may say about his times and about the people 
to which he belongs is in order to shed light on the course of 
one man's life. On the contrary, history has to do with a 
people taken as a unit. When particular persons are described, 
it is for the sake of showing the character and progress of 
the community as a whole. For history deals with nations. 
Savage tribes whose occupations and traits remain the same, 
so that the story of one generation, with a change of names 
and dates, would answer for an account of any other, furnish 
very scanty materials for history.. Their habits and ways it 
is interesting to investigate, but to do this belongs to a dis- 
tinct branch. Anthropology. When we would relate the his- 
tory of a group of nations, or of the peoples of mankind taken 
together, we must attend to their relations to one another. A¥e 
must consider them in their mutual influence, and in their joint 
influence in shaping the current of events. 

Sources of History. — How shall we find out what has taken 
place in past times ? What are the sources of history ? The 
entire generation, all who are living at any particular date, soon 
pass away. No living witnesses of what occurred remain. Of 

1 



2 SOURCES OF HISTORY 

course, we must depend for our knowledge of the past upon 
direct and indirect testimony. One channel by which the re- 
ports of witnesses may reach us is tradition, and tradition has 
its value. Yet unwritten tradition falls under the kind of proof 
termed by lawyers " hearsay evidence." The oftener the tale 
is repeated, the less trustworthy it becomes, and before long it 
groAvs to be entirely worthless. Hence authentic history dawns 
only when men begin to make some kind of records of their 
doings and experiences. As civilization advances beyond its 
first steps, such records become more full. At length histori- 
cal writers spring up who take a special interest in inquiries 
about what has occurred, or about what is taking place in their 
own time. This sort of inquiry was the original meaning of 
the Greek word from which our word history is derived. Of 
course, ancient buildings of every kind, such as still remain, 
like the pyramids of Egypt, or those whose ruins, as in the 
case of Babylon and Nineveh, are dug up, tell us much respect- 
ing extinct peoples. This they do, not only by their deciphered 
inscriptions, but also by their style of structure and their deco- 
rations. 

History and Geography. — Attention to geography is essential 
in the study of history. Names of places have different mean- 
ings at different dates. The boundaries of countries do not 
remain the same. " France," for examjole, signifies limits and 
an extent of territory Avhich vary greatly in successive periods. 
Physical geography, in its three divisions, land, sea, and air, 
is at least equally helpful. The traits, employments, and fort- 
unes of nations are greatly affected by climate and by the con- 
figuration of the portions of the globe which they occupy. For 
example, if the Atlantic coast in North America had been as 
near to a chain of mountains as the Pacific coast is, or even if 
there had been as few harbors on the Atlantic as on the Pacific 
border, the histor}^ of our country must have taken a very 
different turn. 

Chronology. — The method of dating from the birth of Jesus 
was introduced by Dionysius Exiguus, a Roman abbot, about 



KINSHIP OF NATIONS 6 

the middle of the sixth century. But that starting-point was 
placed by him too late. The birth of Jesus was four years 
earlier than the date assigned to it. Pope Gregory XIII. cor- 
rected another error in the calendar. The " ISTew Style," which 
then came in, was gradually adopted. It made a difference of 
eleven days in the last century, and requires us to add in the 
present century twelve days. The Mohammedans reckon from 
the Hegira, or Flight from Mecca to Medina of Mohammed, 
the founder of their religion (622 e.g.). 

Kinship of Nations : Evidence from Physical Characteristics. 
— Ethnology is a new science having a close connection with 
history. It explores the origin and kinship of the nations 
existing now and in the past, and the rise of their customs 
and beliefs. Beside written memorials, there are two sources 
of information on the subject of the relationship of different 
peoples to one another. The first is physical characteristics, or 
peculiarities of form and feature and color. By this criterion, 
mankind are divided by many into three classes or races, — the 
Caucasian or White race, the Mongolian or Yellow race, and 
the Ethiopic or Negro race. By others the number of these 
varieties is made to be larger. In any case, there are no hard- 
and-fast lines between the so-called races. There are numerous 
intermediate variations, or gradations of shape and complexion. 
Moreover, the defining characteristics of the several races are 
not always found together. Thus, woolly hair is not uniformly 
associated with a dark skin. 

It is the Caucasian variety which, up to this time, has played 
the important part in history, for the ancient Egyptians were 
Caucasians. Civilization and progress are, in the main, the 
creation of this dominant race. 

Evidence of Language. — More instructive to the historical 
scholar than physical characteristics are likenesses and differ- 
ences in language. They serve as a clew in the search into 
the genealogy of nations. Looking abroad over the face of the 
globe, we observe a multitude of languages and dialects. But, 
on a close study, a great many of these almost countless varie- 



4 THE ARYANS 

ties of speech arrange themselves in a comparatively few fam- 
ilies or groups. In each of a number of these the members 
are plainly seen to have sprung from a common stock. Thus 
it is shown that those who first spoke the tongues comprised 
in each family had common ancestors. 

The Aryan Family. — There is, first, the Aryan, or Indo- 
European family. Its oldest branch, in many particulars, is 
the Sanskrit, the language in which the Vedas — the ancient 
sacred books of the Hindus — were written. Other members 
of the same family are the Iranian or Persian, the Armenian, 
the Greek, the Latin, the Celtic languages, the Germanic or 
Teutonic languages, — which include the Scandinavian, or the 
tongues of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, — and the Slavo- 
nian languages. 

AVhen all these Aryan languages are compared, they are 
found to be at the basis identical. This is true of their gram- 
matical forms and of their words. They have so many words 
in common that something may be learned from them even in 
respect to the ideas and customs of the progenitors of all the 
Aryan nations. Thus the words father, mother, sister, daughter, 
and other names of blood relations are the same. The word 
wagon, under the disguises of altered spelling, is found in all 
the tongues of the Aryan race. 

First Abode of the Aryans. — The earliest abode of the 
Aryans, so far as our knowledge of them extends, was Iran, or 
the tablelands of eastern Persia. Some contend that we have 
earlier traces of them along the southern course of the Volga. 
On the other hand, some hold that there was such an older 
center in northern Europe. There is no decisive proof in 
•relation to this question. From Iran conquering emigrants 
went forth on the one hand into India, and on the other, in 
successive waves, westward. 

The Aryans in Europe. — Of this widely dispersed Aryan 
race, the Celts were once spread over nearly all western 
Europe, but they are now confined mostly to the highlands of 
Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, and the coast of Prance. The 



SEMITIC AND TURANIAN GROUPS 5 

Basques, in the southwestern corner of France, are the rem- 
nant of a race which preceded even the Celts and were driven 
out by them. It was the Teutons who drove the Celts into 
the territories that are now left to them. In like manner, 
also, the Slavonians, from whom are sprung the Russians, the 
Poles, the Bohemians, etc., crowded upon the Teutons and 
drove them out of a portion of their conquests. 

The Teutonic nationalities include, besides the Scandina- 
vian peoples, England, Holland, and Germany. The Romanic 
or Italic tongues of southern Europe — the tongues of Portu- 
gal, Spain, Provence, Italy, Wallachia, and the Grisons of 
Switzerland — are a mixture of the Latin with the provincial 
dialects once spoken by the common people in these regions. 
With the exception of the Basques, the Einns, the Hungarians, 
and the Turks, all Europe is inhabited by Aryans. The world 
is now practically subject to their power. Beyond Europe they 
are spread over not far from a third of Asia. 

The Semitic Family. — A second family of languages is the 
Semitic, a name given to the tongues of the communities 
described in the book of Genesis as the descendants of Shem. 
Under this head belong the Assyrian and Babylonian, the 
Hebrew and Phoenician, with the Syrian and Aramaic, and 
the Arabic. The Phoenician dialect spread among the numer- 
ous colonies of Tyre. The Arabic followed the course of the 
Mohammedan conquests. 

There have been three periocis of Semitic might. The first 
was the era of the ancient Assyrian and Babylonian empires ; 
the second that of the flourishing Phoenician cities and their 
colonies; the third the period of the Arabic-Mohammedan 
conquests. In the Semitic race, the three great monotheistic 
religions — the Hebrew, the Christian, and the Mohammedan 
— had their origin. 

The Turanian Group. — The third class of languages is the 
Turanian. Its principal seat is central Asia, but the class is 
of much wider extent. The representatives of this class in 
Europe are the Einns, Hungarians, and Turks, mentioned 



6 EXCHANGE OF LANGUAGES 

above. Their tongues are rather a group than a family ; that 
is, their actual kinship is less close. It is often obscure 
and indistinct. Hence the boundaries of this class are not 
well defined. The Turanian languages differ from the Aryan 
and Semitic in not being inflected. The roots of the words do 
not unite with the suf&xes, but these are joined on. Hence 
these tongues are called agglutinative. 

Unclassified Languages. — Xot a few languages thus far do 
not admit of a sure classification. The old Egyptian tongue, 
which is often called Hamitic, has some points of likeness 
to the Semitic languages, but not enough to show an identity 
at the basis. Whether the Chinese has a Turanian kinship is 
not yet determined. 

Languages may be dropped. — In investigating the kinship 
of nations as evinced in their speech, it must not be forgotten 
that a portion of a people, or even an entire people, may change 
its language. History is full of records of the mixture of races. 
The Irish people offer an instance of the adoption by a nation 
of a foreign language. From the tongue spoken by them at 
present, it might be inferred that they are of the very same 
stock as the English. But while the English are Teutons, the 
Irish are Celts, having exchanged the Celtic for the tongue 
which they now speak. The English blood is compounded of 
the blood of Danes, Saxons, and Normans. The adoption of 
the English language by large bodies of emigrants to the 
United States, from different parts of the continent of Europe, 
is a fact with many parallels in histor}^ The distinction of 
tribes was recognized by the Hebrews from the way in which 
they pronounced the word shibboleth. To St. Peter it was 
said, "Thy speech bewrayeth thee." His provincial accent 
proved him to be from Galilee, where the guttural letters of 
the Hebrew alphabet were uttered indistinctly, and sh changed 
into th. But such an inference, although frequently just, is 
far from always settling the question of lineage, even though 
it may point out the place, of birth and of present abode. 



TABLE OF LANGUAGES 



TABLE OF LANGUAGES 

Aryan or Indo-European Family. 

1. The Indie Branch : (1) Ancient Sanskrit (Yeclic) ; Modern 

Sanskrit. (2) Pali, the language of Buddhism. (3) Vari- 
ous modern East Indian Dialects and groups of Dialects. 

2. The Iranic Branch: (1) Old Bactrian or Avestan (no modern 

representatives). (2) Ancient Persian. (3) Modern Per- 
sian. 

3. The Armenian Branch, by some regarded as belonging to the 

Iranic Branch. 

4. The Greek Branch : 

Old and Modern Greek Dialects, and Albanian. 

5. The Italic Branch : (1) Oscan and Umbrian. (2) Latin. 

(3) The Romanic Languages (derived from the Latin), 
including Italian, French, Provencal, Spanish, Portuguese, 
Roumanian, and the language of the Swiss Grisons. 

6. The Celtic Branch : 

(1) Cymric; includes Welsh, Cornish, Armorican. 

(2) Gadhaelic ; includes Gaelic (Scotland), Irish, Manx. 

7. The Slavic Branch : 

(1) Eastern Division, Bulgarian, Servian, and Russian. 

(2) Western Division, Bohemian, Polish. 

To the general head of Slavic is often reckoned Lithua- 
nian, though the latter more properly makes a branch 
by itself, consisting of Lithuanian, Lettic, and Old 
Prussian, distinct from the Slavic, yet closely related 
to it. 

8. The Teutonic Branch: 

r(l) Gothic. 
East "I (2) Scandinavian: Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, 
[ Danish. 

'(3) Low German, Dutch (English), Flemish, -and 

,,^ , several old and modern dialects in Germany, 

West-! 1 • n • ^1. AT ^-u 

chiefly m the North. 

(I) High German, — old, middle, and modern. 



8 TABLE OY LANGUAGES 

Gothic and Scandinavian are sometimes grouped as 
Eastern Teutonic, as distinguished from the West- 
ern Teutonic. Some place English as a distinct 
group. Another Teutonic language, Frisian, lies 
between these groups and is often included with 
Low German. 

II. Semitic Family. 

1. The Northern Division: the Hebrew or Phoenician, the 

Aramaic or Syrian, the Assyrian or Babylonian. 

2. The Southern Division : the Arabian and the Ethiopian. 

III. Scythian or Turanian Family. 

1. The Finno-Hungarian Branch : 

The language of the Finns, the Hungarians, the Lapps, etc. 

2. The Samoyed Branch : 

Spreading on the Siberian coast from the White Sea to 
the Ural Mountains. 

3. The Turkish Branch. 

4. Tlie ]\fongolian Branch : 

East of the Turkish, but not reaching to the ocean. 



5. The Tungusic : 
1 the N.E. 
conquerors and rulers of China 



In the N.E. of Asia, and the language of the Manchu 



Languages often classified as Turanian but in regard to whose classi- 
fication scholars are not yet agreed, are the Japanese, the Chinese, 
the languages of Farther India, the languages of the Pacific islands 
S.E. of Asia, including the Malay-Polynesian group of languages, 
and the Dravidian group of Southern India. 

Unity of Descent. — Natural Science teaches that the phys- 
ical characteristics of the different races of men do not dis- 
prove unity of descent, or the fact of a common but remote 
parentage. So linguistic science teaches that the existing 
varieties of speech, while they do not prove such a unity, are. 
not inconsistent with it. Language, before its sounds are set 



PREHISTORIC PERIOD 9 

down in Avriting, and especially in its infancy, is subject to 
radical changes. Its "wear and tear" among tribes, when 
parted from the common center and from one another, may 
easily cause all features of likeness in speech to vanish. In 
other words, philology, like zoology, has no answer to give on 
the question of monogenesis, or the descent of mankind 
from one pair. It should be noted that the lines dividing 
mankind by the touchstone .of language by no means always 
coincide with those founded on physical resemblances and 
differences. 

Prehistoric Period : Older Stone. Age. — It is now established 
that the globe on which we live has been a great deal longer in 
being than was once believed, and that men have lived upon it 
much longer than was once, on the ground of what was thought 
to be the biblical chronology, supposed to be the fact. In the 
dark background of all directly attested history is a prehistoric 
period. Its long duration is proved by relics of uncivilized 
peoples which lived in places where the climate is proved to 
have been extremely unlike what it is now. This last fact 
respecting climate is shown 
by the remains of animals of 
which there is no account in 
recorded history, and some 
of which could not possibly 
live in these regions. In 

-r^ T ^ . . Stone Axe with Wooden Handle found 

France, and to some extent ^^ ^^ English bog 

in England, there are found 

tools or weapons, made chiefly of flint, which have been carried 
down by the swift current of rivers and deposited in beds. All 
these implements are of unpolished stone. Implements are 
discovered of a somewhat better make, either of stone or of 
bone or horn, and having on some of them rough drawings of 
animals. Such remains are shown, from the places where 
they are found, to have been fashioned by men whose dwell- 
ings were caves and who lived at a very remote day. These 
relics belong to the older stone, or paleolithic, age. 




10 



PREHISTORIC PERIOD 



Later Stone Age. — " Kitchen middens," or great mounds con- 
taining mostly shells of oysters and other shellfish, are found 
in the neighborhood of the Baltic. These relics mark the be- 
ginning of the later stone, or neolithic age. In this stage of 
progress the implements were furnished with handles, were 
polished, and more numerous, and certain animals — of which 
the dog seems to have been the first — were domesticated. 
The barrows, or tombs of earth,, in different countries, indi- 
cate a much further progress in the variety and make of stone 






Neolithic Stone Tools from Denmark 




tools. The lake-dwellers of Switzerland, whose huts were built 
over the water on piles as a means of safety against attacks 
of enemies, had cattle, cultivated trees, and wove cloth. 

Bronze and Iron Ages. — The stone age was followed by the age 
of bronze, when implements were made of copper, or a mixture 
of copper and tin. 

The relics do not indicate so wide a gap between the neo- 
lithic and the bronze ages as that between the paleolithic and 
the neolithic. In many lands rude structures are found which 
are composed of huge stones. These structures are of uncer- 
tain date, and served originally as sepulchers and sometimes 
as altars. They are called dolmens or cromlechs. Stonehenge, 
near Salisbury, is one of the best known of these ancient monu- 



BRONZE AND IRON AGES 



11 



ments. From its remains tlie lines of the two concentric cir- 
cles and of the two ellipses within them can be distinctly 
traced. The implements found in the tumuli or barrows near 
by, which stand in some relation to the cromlech, are of bronze. 
Hence it is the opinion of some learned archaeologists that 




Stonehenge 



the old Britons who built Stonehenge lived in the bronze 
period ; but this opinion is not accepted by all. 

Finally, we reach the traces of the more advanced iron age, 
when this metal was brought into use in the making of tools 
for industry and weapons of war. It is to be observed that 
the lines between these several " ages " are not sharply drawn. 
The eras lap over one another. Nor is there evidence that 
these several steps of progress in one region were contem- 
poraneous with like steps in every other. Moreover, it cannot 
be affirmed, in the present state of our knowledge, that in all 
peoples once civilized there was at some time a passage through 
these consecutive eras. It may be remarked that the products 
left behind from prehistoric time afford no proof that the 
intellectual capacity of men was inferior to what it is now. 
The drawings — for example, drawings of the reindeer on bone 
by the paleolithic inhabitants of France — would incline us to 
think highly of their natural powers. 



12 LANDMARKS IN HISTORY 

Design in History. — There are traces of design in history as 
there are in the kingdom of nature. All who believe in Provi- 
dence hold that the plan of God extends over all mankind and 
embraces all the ages of man's existence on the earth. But this 
plan as yet is only partly carried out. The past is only a frac- 
tion of the entire course of events. Its meaning, or the design 
connected with it, can, therefore, be fully discerned only in the 
light that will be cast back upon it in the future. The drama of 
history is incomplete. As far as the Aryan family is concerned, 
by which, in the main, civilization has been built up, a certain 
order and unity are plainly traceable. Yet India, not less than 
China with its non-Aryan population, stand apart from the 
great stream of historic progress. The nations of eastern Asia 
are now coming into a closer contact and union with the other 
peoples, and seem about to take an active part in the world's 
onward movement. Their part in the drama of human affairs 
may be com^Dared to that of late comers upon the stage. But the 
modern Aryan nations, compared with the civilized Aryan peo- 
ples of antiquity, are new in their rise and their enlightenment. 

Landmarks of History. — The real landmarks of history are 
not separated by intervals of uniform length. They are to 
mark, not the lapse of a certain amount of time, but turning 
points in the course of events. There is a real foundation for 
the general distinction of Ancient and Modern History. 
Ancient History is the record of a by-gone state of things ; 
Modern History, of a state of things now existing. There are 
striking differences between these two great eras. Ancient 
History has its center in the Mediterranean. The peoples 
that lived in the three continents, on the borders of that sea, 
generally became subject to Eome. The empire of Rome was 
extended to the Euphrates on the east, to the deserts of Africa 
on the. south, and northward to Britain, and to the shores of 
the Rhine. In the fourth century began the irruption from 
the north of the unconquered Teutonic tribes, and with it the 
breaking up of that wide-spread empire. In 476, the city of 
Rome itself fell into the hands of the invading barbarians. 



LANDMARKS IN HISTORY 13- 

With the breaking up of the Eoman Empire, Ancient His- 
tory ends. The new races of conquerors took power into their 
hands; new centers of rule arose north of the Alps; a new 
type of culture and civilization grew up. Yet in the temporary 
eclipse of civilization there was no gulf of separation from the 
old order of things. The new era was the heir of priceless 
treasures handed down from the past. In them were included 
Christianity and the guidance of the Church. To be sure, no 
change so stupendous as the shipwreck of the Eoman Empire 
has since taken place. Nevertheless, after a long interval, 
which comprises the " middle ages," there occurred, in the fif- 
teenth century, events and changes so momentous as to occa- 
sion frequently a triple division of history into the ancient, 
mediaeval, and modern eras. In this classification the term 
"modern" is used in a special, more limited sense. During 
the middle ages, the peoples in the different countries into 
which the Eoman Empire of the West was broken, were in a 
process of development. They were becoming distinct from 
one another, in their la^nguage and institutions, although united 
by the common bond of ecclesiastical union to Eome. At the 
same time, the Eastern Eoman Empire, which had its ancient 
capital at Constantinople, was going through a slow process of 
decay and dissolution. Slavonian tribes seized upon portions 
of it, just as the Teutons had established themselves in the 
provinces of the AYest. Arabic Mohammedan conquerors tore 
from it extensive territories. Finally, in 1453, Constantinople 
was taken by the Turks, and the Empire of the East was no 
more. This catastrophe, with the events that led up to it 
and followed it, had a great influence on society in western 
Europe. 

In connection with the revived study of Antiquity, the 
modern period arose. A new freedom of thought began to 
manifest itself. A fresh impulse was given to the spirit of 
invention and discovery. National feeling gained strength, 
and the ecclesiastical unity of Europe was broken. The secu- 
lar interests of society excited an increased attention, while 



14 DIVISIONS OF HISTORY 

political affairs and the rivalry of princes and peoples assumed 
a new importance. Yet, notwithstanding the planting of the 
Turkish power in Europe, Europe as a whole has advanced 
steadily towards a controlling influence among the nations of 
the earth. 

History may then be divided into three parts : — 

I. Ancient History, to the migrations of the Teutonic tribes 

(375 A.D.). 
11. Mediaeval History, from 375 a.d. to the Fall of Con- 
stantinople (1453). 

III. Modern History, from 1453 until the present. 



AJ^CIEJNTT HISTORY 



>J^c 



I. ORIENTAL NATIONS 



CHAPTER II 

CHINA 

Physical Geography. — We speak of the Continent of Europe 
and of the Continent of Asia, but also of the Eastern Con- 
tinent, which comprises both. This last expression is not 
incorrect, since Europe and Asia form one vast land-mass, 
with only a partial boundary between them, which is made 
by the Ural Mountains and the deep beds of the Caspian 
and Black seas. An immense plateau, traversed by chains 
of mountains, stretches all the way from the Black Sea to 
Corea. It is divided into two unequal parts by the Hindu- 
Kush range. The eastern portion, which is generally lower, 
the plateau of central Asia, has been the abode of wandering 
Mongol and Tartar tribes. While these have been too weak 
to conquer and hold the fertile regions of central China and 
Hindustan, they have yet been able, at different periods, to 
devastate these lands by pouring into them hosts of invad- 
ers. The western plateau is bordered on the southwest by the 
plains of Mesopotamia. Arabia is a low plateau of vast extent, 
between which and the mountainous regions of Asia Minor are 
the plateau and mountains of Syria. Egypt was reckoned by 

15 



16 ORIENTAL NATIONS 

the ancients as a part of Asia. In our time, the Suez Canal 
connects the Mediterranean and the Bed seas. Civilization 
sprang up on the shores fertilized by great rivers, the Nile in 
Egypt, the Tigris and Euphrates, the Indus and the Ganges, 
and, in China, the Hoang-Ho and the Yang-tse-Kiang. 

Early Annals. — The nucleus of this people, which is more 
ancient than any other existing nation, is supposed to have 
been a band of emigrants of the Turanian race, who entered 
China, following the course of the Hoang-Ho, or Yellow River. 
It is not much that we know of them. There are not wanting 
arguments for the opinion that their starting point was the 
tribes of Elam in Babylonia. There is evidence that they 
brought with them some knowledge of astronomy, of the con- 
struction of canals, of bricks made of clay, of writing, of music, 
of certain domestic animals, and the practice of ancestral rites 
of worship. By degrees they absorbed or drove out the native 
tribes, and occupied a territory which in the middle ages was 
called by Europeans " Cathay." The early annals of the Chi-' 
nese, as of most other nations, are made up of myths and 
fables. Probably the migration just referred to was not far 
from 2200 b.c. This mythological age is made, by Chinese 
chroniclers, to stretch over from forty-live thousand to five 
hundred thousand years. It is filled up with imaginary lines 
of dynasties. Particular discoveries and inventions are ascribed 
severally to particular sovereigns. For example, Fu-hi has the 
credit of discovering iron. The date of Fu-hi, like the dates 
of other epochs along the course of Chinese history, cainiot be 
settled. The isolation of China cuts us off from a comparison 
of its annals with those of other nations. 

Yaou ; Yu ; the Chow Dynasty. — With Yaou (2076 b.c.) we 
begin to tread upon firmer ground. There is a larger mixture 
of fact in the mass of legends, although the Avheat cannot be 
sifted from the chaff. There is the story of a great inundation 
from the rising of the rivers in the reign of Shem. The acces- 
sion of Yu the Great (about 1950 b.c.) is celebrated by the 
chronicles as a happy event. But later kings of the Shang 



CHINA 17 

dynasty ruled badly, and things went ill until the Chow dynasty, 
in the person of Wu Wang, acceded to the throne, in 1123 b.c. 
Wu Wang was a warlike and virtuous prince, but he crip- 
pled the central power by establishing a feudal system, com- 
posed of a great number of petty states. Civil war naturally 
followed, and this opened the way for incursions of the 
Tartars. It was in a period of disorder and danger that the 
great teacher of China, Confucius, was born (551 b.c). Lao-tse, 
also a famous teacher, was a few years older. Mencius was 
a third distinguished teacher, who, after a long life, died in 
289 B.C. 

The Tsin Dynasty. — The era of feudal strife and confusion 
was ended by the founder of the Tsin dynasty, a powerful 
feudal ruler in the northwest. The work which he began was 
completed by Chi Hwangti (" Emperor First "), who succeeded 
him in 246 b.c. He restored unity, and divided the country 
into provinces, over each of which he placed a governor. He 
also erected public buildings, and built roads and canals. He 
connected and lengthened the short walls, w^hicli had been 
raised by certain princes in the northern states to keep out the 
Huns, and thus constructed the Great Wall of China. It ex- 
tended across the whole northern frontier, from the sea as far 
west as the desert. Its total length was fifteen hundred miles. 
Either from vanity, in order to blot out the memory of his 
predecessors who might be his rivals in fame, or because recol- 
lections of the past might create discontent with his maxims 
of government, he ordered all books of a historical kind to be* 
destroyed. No doubt copies of many of the old writings were 
hidden and thus preserved. 

The Han Dynasty. — The Tsin dynasty, after about forty 
years, gave way to the Han dynasty, which was set up by an 
ambitious soldier (206 b.c), and lasted for about four hundred 
years (until 221 a.d.). It was a period marked by the progress 
of learning and by literary productions. Under Mong-ti (65 
A.D.), the religion of which Buddha was the founder made a 
multitude of converts in China. It had been introduced be- 



18 ORIENTAL NATIONS 

fore, but now the Buddhistic books were sent for by the 
Emperor and brought out of India. The sway of the Chinese 
was extended, and for a while was kept up even as far to 
the west as the Caspian Sea. These campaigns brought to the 
Chinese their first knowledge of the Romans. 

After the Han dynasty, there came the "era of the three 
kingdoms.'' It was a long period of discord and division, 
interrupted once (265 a.d.) by a partial reunion of the sun- 
dered states, but not ending until 590 a.d. Then Tang Keen 
restored unity and order by bringing all China to submit to 
his rule. 

Isolation of the Chinese. — The separation of China from 
other nations, and their dislike of intercourse with foreigners, 
is owing partly to circumstances, and partly to their natural 
qualities. For ages they were begirt by deserts and mountains, 
and their contact with foreigners was confined to resisting bar- 
barian incursions. Their language has remained in the rudi- 
mental stage. It is made up of monosyllables. There is no 
alphabet. For words a host of characters serving as symbols 
are employed. These are altered and abbreviated pictures of 
objects, pictures of objects having been the original form of 
writing. Of course, it is a language very difficult for foreign- 
ers to learn. An ingrained, excessive veneration for the past 
has been a principal hindrance to the admission of changes, 
and to intercourse with other peoples who might seek to effect 
them. 

Literature in China. — Yet the Chinese have been a literary 
people. Their writings, however, have been mostly prosaic in 
their form and contents. They furnish information, rather 
than kindle imagination or feeling. The esteem for learning 
is shown in the requirement that candidates for public offices 
shall undergo examinations to test their literary knowledge. 
But the mass of the people have been left in ignorance. At 
the foundation of all learning are the nine classics, five written, 
or edited, by Confucius, and four by his disciples and by 
Mencius. 



CHINA 19 

The Religion of China. — The religion of CMna was poly- 
theistic. The supreme divinity, Tien or Shang-ti, was the 
heaven above, personified. Two features are stamped upon 
the religion of China. One is the worship of ancestors. The 
other is reverence for Confucius. This sage did not pretend 
to explain things supernatural. His teaching consists of moral 
and political maxims. It comprises wise counsel to parents 
and rulers. He inculcates the golden rule on its negative side : 
" Do not unto others what you would not that others should do 
unto you." Lao-tse is the founder of Taoism, which has in it 
more that is mystical, but also contains good precepts. It 
came to be mixed with fanciful speculations and with notions 
and rites borrowed from Buddhism, which prevails very widely 
among the common people. 

A peculiarity of China is that its several religions not only 
subsist together, but are mingled in the faith and |)ractices of 
their respective adherents. There is a State religion, a showy 
ritual consisting of appointed ceremonies which are conducted 
at stated times by the Emperor. Offerings are made by him 
to numerous divinities, the highest of whom are the heavens, or 
sky, and the earth. These objects, which are vaguely conceived 
of and adored, make up, with the Emperor himself, a triad. 

The Government of China. — The government of China is a 
paternal despotism. It is checked and modified, however, by 
an established system of laws, for the observance of which the 
Emperor is held answerable. The remedy for lawlessness on 
his part is revolution. 

The Arts in China. — In many useful arts the Chinese antici- 
pated other nations. Printing by wooden blocks was known 
to them as early as the sixth century a.d. The first use of 
movable types among the Chinese, was perhaps as early as the 
tenth century. Gunpowder was used as early as 250 a.d., and 
it has been thought that the comx3ass was employed as a guide 
in journeys on land long before it was invented in Europe for 
purposes of navigation. 

In various branches of manufactures — as silk, porcelain, 



20 



ORIENTAL NATIONS 



carved work in ivory, wood, and horn — the Chinese have, 
at least until a recent period, been preeminent. Their crude 
implements in husbandry are in contrast with their exhibi- 




The Great 



tions of skill in other directions. Although imitation long 
ago stifled the activity of inventive talent, to China belongs 
the distinction of being a civilized land before the nations of 
Europe had emerged into being. 



CHAPTER III 

INDIA 

The Aryan Invaders. — The history of India begins in a con- 
test between the bands of Aryans who crossed the Himalayas 
from tlie northwest and subdued its native inhabitants. The 
Vedas, the sacred books of the Sanskrit-speaking invaders, 
show^ them to us on the fertile plains watered by the Indus. 
This migration and conquest was probably somewhat earlier 
than 2000 b.c. The Eigveda exhibits them as herdsmen, but 
with a warlike spirit. The non-Aryan inhabitants were driven 
out. The conquerors and even the conquered barbarians dwelt 
in villages and towns. The former made use of boats. They 
had learned to use chariots in battle. Among them Avere 
blacksmiths and other artisans. 

>j j|Fne Religion of the Aryans. — The religion of these Aryan 
settlers was polytheistic. The gods were the powers of nature. 
The chief of the Aryan divinities is thought to have been 
originally the Heaven-Father. The same divinity was adored 
in Greece under the name of Zeus, and in ancient Italy under 
the name of Jupiter. He is the god of the shining sky, at 
first not distinguished from the material heavens, conceived of 
as personal. Other gods in India were Varuna, sometimes not 
regarded as distinct from Heaven-Father; Indra, the god of 
thunder and raiii; and A^gni, the god of fire. Worship was 
through offerings and prayers. It was felt to be necessary 
that it should be sincere, for the gods will not tolerate deceit. 
Sometimes, the divinities are said to be many thousands in 
number. There was a tendency to concentrate worship for 
the time being upon one, as if the others were out of mind. 

21 



22 ORIENTAL NATIONS 

This monolatry, or singleness of the object of worship, is 
called henotheism. 

The Aryans on the Ganges. — Before 1000 B.C. the Aryan 
invaders are found to have transferred their abode to the plains 
of the Ganges. Great changes have taken place. The most 
important of them is the rise of the castes. The lowest caste 
was composed, naturally, of the Sudras, or serfs, who were 
the conquered natives. Next above them were the tillers of 
the soil ; then the warriors, and above all were the priests, or 
Brahnians, who after a time had a complete ascendancy. They 
were the literary class. They managed the tribal sacrifices. 

Brahmanism. — The primitive polytheism, mingled with monol- 
atry, gradually resolved itself into pantheism. The beginnings 
of this change are plain in the later Yedic writings. In them 
the supreme god, Brahma, was imagined to be without con- 
scious life or will. He was not thought of as a creator, but 
as the eternal source whence all things — gods, nature, and men 
— emanate. All living things partake of the life that flows 
out from the Supreme. Existence separate from Brahma is 
an evil. The greatest good, the highest aspiration, is to be 
reabsorbed in him. To reach this goal, the soul must be puri- 
fied. Its sufferings here are the penalty of sins in a preexist- 
ent state. Hence the transmigration of souls, or the reentering 
of the soul into another body — it might be the body of a re- 
pulsive animal — was an article of faith. With these beliefs 
were connected severe penances, many varieties of self-torment, 
endured for the purpose of getting rid of defilement. In all 
these points the Brahmanical system is distinguished from the 
earlier religion of the Yedas, which knows nothing either of 
these austerities or of transmigration. 

Buddhism. — Brahmanism has never been overthrown, but 
it has been modified. A great epoch in the religion of India 
was the rise of Buddhism. The story of the founder, Buddha, 
is mingled with legends. He died, according to most scholars, 
between 482 and 472 b.c, being then eighty years old. Born 
of a noble but not of a royal family, Buddha was so struck 



INIDIA 23 

with the miseries of mankind tliat lie renounced kixury, and 
forsook parents, wife, and son, tliat he miglit meditate on the 
cause of human suffering and devise a remedy. After many 
years of thought and inward struggle, he found, as he believed, 
the secret of spiritual peace. 

Buddha made no attack on Brahmanism. He left untouched 
the gods and their worship, and also the caste system. He 
taught that the method of salvation lay not in asceticism, but 
in the cjuenching of all desires, which disturb the soul, and, in 
particular, all evil passions, such as revenge and impurity. 
By this means the horrors of transmigration will be avoided, 
and the soul will attain to Nirvana, or the rest of unconscious- 
ness. Buddha's teaching contained humane and excellent 
precepts, but later, in connection with it, there grew up a 
vast system of ascetic practices, not less burdensome than the 
tyranny of caste. 

Spread of Buddhism. — Buddhism was spread abroad by Bud- 
dhistic missionaries. There was a reaction, however, of Brah- 
manism, which took up a portion of the Buddhistic ideas, but, 
instead of forsaking the old ceremonial system, made it more 
rigorous and oppressive. In course of time, new practices 
were brought in, one of which was the burning of the widow 
on the funeral pile of the husband. Buddhism in India finally 
became extinct, having melted away into the Brahmanical 
system. Abroad, in Ceylon, Burmah, central Asia and China, 
it won a vast multitude of converts. 

The Greek Period, the Middle Ages. — In 327, Alexander the 
Great led his forces into India, leaving garrisons in different 
places, but did not advance as far as the Ganges. From this 
time, more or less intercourse continued between India and 
and the kingdoms of the AYest. The commerce that was car- 
ried forward in the middle ages led to the efforts of navigators 
to find a shorter passage from the marts of Europe to the ports 
of India. One of these enterprises undertaken for this purpose 
issued in the discovery of America by Columbus. 



11. THE EARLIEST GROUP OF NATIONS 



CHAPTER IV 



EGYPT 



The Inhabitants. — Even before the Christian era Roman 
travelers visited Egypt to see what to them were the monu- 
ments of a remote antiquity, just as 
modern travelers, from a like curios- 
ity, now visit Rome. This fact helps 
us to conceive how far back the story 
of Egyptian civilization carries us. In 
the distant past there existed, in the 
valley of the Nile, a peox)le of a dark 
color, tinged with red. They were 
(Jancasians who are thought to have 
been of Asiatic origin, although by 
some they are believed to have l)een 
African emigrants from Lybia. On 
the south of them was Nubia, whose 
inhabitants were negroes. Eastward 
there dwelt a dusky people of a dif- 
ferent race, a branch of the widely dif- 
fused Cushites. 

The Nile ; Geographical Divisions. — 
The old Greek historian, Herodotus, 
said of Egypt that it was " the gift of 
the Nile." It was the deposits of mud 
from the yearly inundations of the river, when its sources in 

24 




Wooden Imagk of an Egyptian 
OF Rank in the Old King- 
dom (BiUak Jfuseum) 



EGYPT 



25 



tropical Africa were swollen by rains, that made the land on its 
borders extremely fertile. On either side of this land was a 
barren waste with high monntains on the east and low hills on 




Map of Egypt 



the west. As the Nile approached the Mediterranean, the fer- 
tile area spread out into the Delta, through which the river cut 
its channels and poured its waters into the sea. 

Egypt originally embraced two kingdomSc The part of the 
country north of Memphis, comprising the Delta, is Lower 



26 



EARLIEST GROUP OF NATIONS 



Egypt. Upper Egypt, with Thebes for its principal city, ex- 
tended sontliward to the First Cataract. This boundary of the 
country was sometimes carried by great kings as far as the 
Second Cataract and even to the Sudan. 

Early Civilization. — Very early, perhaps six thousand years 
ago, there existed in Lower Egypt an advanced culture. The 
art of writing was knoAvn. Vast buildings were erected. The 
sepulchers and pyramids imply much skill in the mechanical 

arts. There was a division 
of the year, the beginnings 
of science and literature, 
and a well-ordered govern- 
ment. The country was 
divided into about twenty 
nomes, or districts. In 
each there was a leading 
city, the seat of the local 
government, and a center 
of worship. In art, indus- 
try, religion, and in man- 
ners and customs generally, 
there was a strong tendency 
to follow fixed rules and 
patterns. This was partly owing to the fact that for a long 
period Egypt, like China, stood by itself, with very little inter- 
course with other peoples. The spirit of the nation set bar- 
riers to progress beyond a certain limit. 

Sources of the History. — Eor our knowledge of Egyptian 
annals we depend very much upon the history of Manetho, an 
Egyptian priest (about 250 e.g.), or rather upon extracts from 
his Avork in other ancient Avriters, and upon the inscriptions 
on the monuments. Herodotus visited Egypt and collected 
information about the past ; but although honest, he was cred- 
ulous. Questions of chronology are still unsettled. Tlie date 
of Menes, the first historic king, is not later than 3000 b.c, 
while some learned scholars think it was 2000 years earlier. 




Egyptian Hok 
(Bas-relief from the tomh of Ti) 




A Suue.makkk's Shop 
{Chamjiollion'' s Monuments of Egyj)t) 



EGYPT 27 

Hieroglyphics. — Writing among the Egyptians was first by 
means of liieroglyphs, or pictures of objects. This continued to 
be the method used in official writing carved upon stone. The 
pictures were abridged in the hieratic writing, and still more 
in the demotic. Besides 
literal pictures there was 
a symbolic use of them. 
Thus, a disc O, which 
meant the sun, stood as 
the symbol of day. There 
was an alphabet of twenty- 
four consonants, together 
with numerous signs of words and syllables. To these signs 
were added determinatives, to make their phonetic sense clear. 
The determinatives Avere pictures of the things meant. Thus 
writing became quite complex. 

Eras in the History. — From Menes, stretching down the 
course of Egyptian history, is a long series of dynasties, which 
are designated by numbers. Each of them has its list of 
Pharaohs, the name by which all the monarchs were desig- 
nated. The history prior to the Persian conquest (525 b.c.) 
divides itself into three sections: the Old Empire, having its 
seat at Memphis, or the Memphite Period, from the first to 
the tenth dynasty ; the Middle Empire, from the eleventh to 
the twentieth dynasty, with Thebes for its capital, but includ- 
ing the rule of the foreign Hyksos, or Shepherds; and the 
New Empire, from the twenty-first to the thirtieth dynasty, an 
era called by some the Saite Period, divided into two sections 
by the Persian conquest. 

The Old Empire ; the Pyramids. — It was in the period of 
the Old Empire (reaching to about 2100 B.C.), that the great 
pyramids were erected. They were the sepulchers of kings. 
Chufu, the Cheops of the Greeks, built the largest of them at 
Gizeh. Its original perpendicular height was 480 feet, and 
the length of its side 764 feet. Within it was the sarcophagus 
of the sovereign. The pyramid of Gizeh that is the next in 



28 EARLIEST GROUP OF NATIONS 

size was the work of Cliafra. A third and smaller pyramid 
at (jfizeh was raised by Menkaura. 

Dominion of Thebes. — Pepi was the most powerful monarch 
of the sixth dynasty. He conc^uered the negroes of Nubia 
and routed the Syrian Bedouins. In the interval from the 
seventh to the eleventh dynasties there were revolts and revo- 
lutions. Then the princes of Thebes attained to the throne, 
and extended their sway over the land. Under this twelfth 
dynasty there were kings who displayed military prowess, by 











. -tit' " -^ ^ 


\ 




^^^f« 


--— . 




■» s *■' 


...--,r| 



The Great Pyramids {From a photograph) 

whom the region of the Upper Nile was conquered, a prosper- 
ous trade carried forward with Syria, and vast edifices, like 
the temple of Amnion at Thebes and the temple of the Sun 
at Heliopolis, were constructed. Amenemhat III. built the 
immense artificial reservoir, Lake Moeris, to receive and dis- 
tribute the waters of the Nile. Literature flourished. Art 
attained to a degree of perfection beyond which it did not 
afterwards advance. It was the golden age of Egyptian 
culture. 

This era was succeeded by a period of calamity. The four- 
teenth dynasty was overcome by a horde of Asiatic Bedouins, 



EGYPT 



29 




Amenemhat III. 
{Plaster cast in the Berlin JIuseum) 



called Hyksos (or Sheplierds), who overran a great part of 
Egypt. They established their throne at Tanis, but did not 
succeed fully in subduing Lower Egypt. They adopted the 
customs of the subdued people, 
yet the native people continued 
hostile to them. They held their 
power for a number of centu- 
ries. Their expulsion, after a 
long struggle, was at last effected 
by Aahmes I., the first king of the 
eighteenth dynasty. 

The Martial Spirit ; Thothmes 
III. — From this time the Egyp- 
tians, from being a comparatively 
mild people, disposed to the arts 
of peace, were converted into a 
warlike nation, bent upon foreign 
conquests. Horses now came to 
be used in battle. Special homage is paid to war-gods. More- 
over, the priestly class becomes more imited and dominant. 
The principal buildings erected are temples, in the place of 
massive sepulchers. Thothmes I. made plundering campaigns 
in Ethiopia, and in Syria, advancing as far as the Euphrates. 
The great Egyptian conqueror, Thothmes III., in the course of 
a series of victorious campaigns in Syria, captured the strong 
city of Megiddo, subdued Syria and Palestine, and returned 
home, laden with booty, and bringing with him a multitude of 
hostages and prisoners. The gigantic structures of Karnak 
and Luxor testify to the grandeur of these military monarchs. 
They were built in honor of Amnion, the god of war. The 
achievements of Thothmes III. were inscribed upon their 
walls. 

Ramses I. ; Seti I. — Through the foreign conquests, Asiatic 
influences came to prevail in the Egyptian court. This Avas 
especially true under Amenophis IV., who established at 
Thebes the Asiatic divinity Aten, the god of the disc of the 



80 



EAHLIEST GROUP OF NATIONS 



sun, in whose honor he changed his name to Chu-en-Aten. 
'^the Ulster of the solar disc." The great monarchs of the 
nineteenth dynasty were hostile to this Asiatic influence and 



worship. This 
not surpass as 
ing dynasty, 
better how to 
Seti I., having 
the Canaanites 



was true of E-amses I. If they did 
conquerors, the kings of the preced- 
especially Thothmes III., they knew 
retain and organize their conquests, 
defeated the Arabian tribes, vanquished 
and built strong places in their land. 




In the conflict with Mautenouer, the king of the Hittites, 
he gained no decisive success. The Hittites were a brave 
nation, advanced in culture, whose dominion was between the 



EGYPT 



31 



Orontes and the Euphrates. A smaller branch of this people 
dwelt in Canaan, of whom we have notices in the Old Testa- 
ment, at the same time that intimations are given of a knowl- 
edge of the powerful nation bearing the same name. 

The Lybian Incursions. — Thothmes in a series of attacks 
repelled the Lybian tribes. These enemies constantly threat- 
ened Egypt, until, four centu- 
ries later, one of their kings 
was able to get possession of 
the Egyptian throne. They 
had first been received into 
the Egyptian army as mer- 
cenaries. Seti raised mag- 
nificent edifices, mostly at 
Thebes. 

Ramses II. ; War with the 
Hittites. — Eamses II., his 
son and successor, named 
Sesostris by the Greeks, al- 
though a great warrior, is not 
entitled to all the glory that 
the legends of the Greeks 
attribute to him. The chief 
contest in which he was en- 
gaged was with the Hittites 
and the peoples allied with 
them. 7lt Kadesh, on the 
Orontes, Eamses turned the 
tide of battle by his personal 
valor. The victory is cele- 
brated in the heroic poem 

of Pentaur, the Homer of Egypt. But the defeat of the 
enemy could not have been overwhelming, for it was fol- 
lowed by a treaty of peace and alliance, of which the record 
remains. In the reign of Ramses II., which lasted sixty-eight 
years, the relations of Egypt with the Asiatic countries speak- 




Statue of Eamses II. {Turin Museum) 



32 



EARLIEST GROUP OF NATIONS 




i^^^i^^e 



\ I 



^M 



;? 



uni m ijii(i'tnPi<r^mn^^nmifmf^ mf ^n 



A Nile Boat 
{Masx>ero, The Dawn of Civilisation) 



ing .the Semitic tongues became more intimate. His most 
splendid monuments as a builder are at Thebes. One of 
them is the "House of Eamses," south of Karnak. 

Exodus of the Hebrews. — Hostility to the religious changes 
by Amenophis IV. and to the Asiatics in Egypt will account 
for the oppression of the Israelites by the Pharaoh, who was 

probably E-amses 
II. They escaped 
from Egypt dur- 
ing the reign of 
one of his succes- 
sors, either Men- 
ephthah, or possi- 
bly Kamses III., 
who reigned 
about half a cen- 
tury after Ram- 
ses II. The dominion over Canaan was held by Egypt only 
for a short time after its conquest hy Seti I. 

From about 1500 to 1300 n.o., Egypt in arts and in arms Avas 
the foremost of the nations. Lybian kings held the scepter 
for a century and a half. After this time there was a series 
of Ethiopic rulers. 

Assyrian Conquest ; Persian Conquest. — Egypt could not re- 
sist the power of Assyria. About G50 b.c. Psammetichus I., 
one of the local rulers and an ally of the Assyrians, made 
himself independent, and gained supreme authority. He made 
friends with the Greeks. From this time their influence in- 
creased. Neclio II. was no match for the power of :N"ebuchad- 
nezzar, King of Babylon, by whom he was vanquished in the 
great battle of Carchemish, by the Euphrates. 

Egypt escaped from permanent subjugation under the As- 
syrians and Babylonians, but another powerful empire, that of 
the Persians, founded by Cyrus, reduced it to subjection. It 
was conquered by Cambyses, the successor of Cyrus, who made 
it a Persian province (525 b.c). The last of the Persian kings 



EGYPT 



33 



of Egypt was detlironed by Alexander the Great, who left 
Egypt in 331 b.c. In the division of Alexander's empire, 
Egypt felL to the share of the first king of the Greek line 
of Ptolemies. 




Pharaoh gives Audience to One of his Ministers 
{Maspero, The Bawn of Oimlisation) 

Rulers and Classes. — The monarchs of Egypt were regarded 
with superstitious veneration, and were looked upon as related 
to the gods, and as destined hereafter to be their associates. 
They reigned in splendor and selected the chief officers of 
state. The land was held by the nobles, generals, and priests. 
The civil administration was an orderly system and there was 



34 



EARLIEST GROUP OF NATIONS 



an effective training for military service. There were no rigid 
barriers of caste and it was possible for the lowly to rise. From 

the beginning of the New Empire 
there was a middle class which 
included in it artisans. Not until 
the New Empire was there a great 
exaltation of the priesthood. 

Religion of the Egyptians. — The 
religion of the Egyptians was poly- 
theistic. Personal life was attri- 
buted to the various objects and 
operations of nature. What has 
been thought to be monotheism 
was a kind of monolatry, which 
bears the name of henotheism; 
that is, as previously explained, 
an exclusive worship at different 
places, for the time at least, of 
some one divinity. But this did 
not imply any denial of the exist- 
ence and agency of other gods. 
It was not until the days of the New Empire that a certain 
tendency to j)an- 
theism appears 
in the hymns of 
priests. The per- 
sonality of the 
Sun-God, or the 
old Harvest-God, 
is indistinct. The 
chief divinities of 
Egypt were con- 
nected with the 
sun. They were 

gods of light. Sacked Bull (Apis) 

The sun was WOr- {Sculptor's model hi the Buluk Museum) 




HORTTS 

( WUkijuon's Egyptians) 




EGYPT 



35 



shiped under tlie names of Ea and Horns. Osiris, Isis, a 
female divinity, and Horns, were linked together in a triad. 
A like grouping of gods, as liusband, wife, and son, was com- 
mon in the popular religion. Osiris came to be considered 
the god who reigns in the kingdom of the dead. He sits 
in judgment upon them, having 
associated with him forty-two 
subordinate judges. The good 
he takes to himself. But all 
nature w^as conceived of as full 
of deities. Especially was the 
beneficent Nile an object of 
worship. Above all, animals 
in their mysterious life w^ere 
adored, and some of them cher- 
ished with slavish devotion. 
When the sacred steer Apis 
died, the land was in sorrow, 
until another was found by the 
priests to take its iDlace. The 
sacred crocodile w^as decorated 
with costly jewels, and tended 
with a debasing homage. 

The Bodies of the Dead. — 
The Egyptians took all possi- 
ble pains to preserve the bodies 
of the dead. This was owing 
to their belief that the well- 
being of the soul depended on 
the preservation of the body. 
The dead were embalmed with much painstaking, and, in the 
case of those who could afford the expense, at great cost. 
They were swathed in linen bandages. Kesin and other gums 
and aromatics were used to keep the form and features of the 
mummies, as far as could be, unchanged. On the case in 
which the mummy was placed his face and figure were painted 




Mummy of Seti I. {Buldk Museum) 



36 



EARLIEST GROUP OF NATIONS 



in colors. On the outside was an epitaph recording the name 
and rank of the deceased. Within was inscribed a chapter 
from the Book of the Dead, which was a description of rules 
and ceremonies relating to the dead, and of petitions and pray- 
ers to be said by the soul to different divinities in the course 
of its long journey in the abodes of the departed. The design 
was to secure a contented, happy life to the different parts of 
one's being. In later times the case of the mummy was fash- 
ioned to fit the form and countenance of the person inclosed. 
Recent discoveries have enabled us to look upon the withered 
faces of famous Egyptian monarchs and conquerors. 




IS'iLE STATUE {Vatican J/atieinii, Itomt) 



,tr''^, 



CHAPTER V 

ASSYRIA AND BABYLONIA 

Geography. — Assyria and Babylonia were geographically one 
country, inliabited by one race. For the greater part of their 
history they were united under one 
government. In the north, the dis- 
trict between the Tigris and Euphra- 
tes is mountainous and hilly. The 
rivers, in their descent from their 
sources in the mountains of Arme- 
nia, gradually approach one another, 
at a distance of about three hundred 
and fifty miles from their outlet in 
the Persian Gulf. Prom that point, 
the lowlands begin, the fertile plains 
of Babylonia. The overflow of the 
rivers, the waters of which were dis- 
tributed by the inhabitants through 
artificial canals and dikes, increased 
the breadth of the fertile region, and 
added to its productiveness. 

The Early Inhabitants of Babylo- 
nia. — Babylonia has been inhabited 
from the earliest times. When the Semites entered this 
region they found it settled and somewhat civilized. The 
northern half, in which Babylon was included, was known as 
Akkad, and the southern as Sumer. The earlier inhabitants of 
southern Babylonia, the Sumerians, are thought to have come 
down from the north, and originally, as some learned scholars 

37 




Statue of a Sumerian Woman 
{Louvre) 



38 



EARLIEST GROUP OF NATIONS 



judge, from beyond the Caspian Sea, as their language is 
thought to be allied to that of the Turks who dwelt in that 
region. The Sumerians and the Semites mingled together, and 
the resultant civilization contained both Semitic and non-Se- 
mitic elements. The kingdom of Ur bears date about 3000 b.c. 



'^^^^3s> 




AlfCIENT BABYLONIA 
AND ASSYRIA 



Between 3000 and 2000 b.c. the Chaldeans, whose home was a 
district on the Persian Gulf, planted themselves in Babylonia. 
Repeatedly they got possession of Babylon, and finally gained 
the mastery in that region. The language which prevailed 
was that of the Semitic rulers. The Semitic element was even 
more mixed in Assyria. 



ASSYRIA AND BABYLONIA 39 

Tlie History of Babylon is ascertained partly from fragments 
of their native historian, Berosus, but the annals of both 
Babylonia and Assyria are brought to light chiefly by the 
cuneiform, or wedge-shaped, inscriptions upon the ruins of 
their cities, especially those of Nineveh, which have been 
unearthed in recent times. 




Chaldean Household Utensils 

The Legendary Period. — The old kingdom of Babylon pre- 
ceded the Assyrian monarchy. The mythical tales of Baby- 
lonian annalists cover a period of 432,000 years. At this point 
they present an account of a deluge, much resembling in its 
particulars the narrative in Genesis. Then follows a period 
of 36,000 years before we reach the Persian conquest which 
brought the Babylonian power to an end. About the name of 
Sargon I. numerous legends cluster. 

The Early Civilization of Babylonia. — The early Babylonians 
made considerable attainments in astronomy. They marked 
down the signs of the zodiac, and made that division of time 
into months, weeks, days, hours and minutes, which still sub^ 
sists. They invented weights and measures, and the j)otter's 
wheel, and had no small skill in the manufacture of cloths. 
They made a beginning in trade and commerce. Elamite 
invaders came in, and from the east of the Tigris established 



40 



EARLIEST GROUP OF NATIONS 




Old Bahvlum.' 

Nebuchadnezzar I. 
boundary stone) 



a dynasty in Babylon. The same 
thing was done by warlike Cossaeans, 
wlio kei:)t their control for a long 
time. Recent discoveries make it 
clear that Babylonian power and cul- 
ture were dominant in Palestine at 
a very early day. Thus the art of 
writing in the use of the l>abylonian 
characters was widely spread, and 
extended as far as the frontiers of 
Egypt. This is thought to have been 
the fact a good while before the time 
of Moses. A temporary conquest by 
the Assyrians, in particular that of 
Tigiath Pileser I., was succeeded by 
an era of domestic strife and anarchy. 
Early Assyrian History. — Assyria 
at length became the great conquering 
power of Western Asia. In the Greek 
legends, Ninus and Semiramis, his 
queen, figure prominently. Assliur 



V f 















c^.~ 



V- 



\ l^M'u 






L ^^z wL\^ / -iv. \ {4^ ^ .. 



/. 



Cmii DoMFsrK Vmmm-^ in im Khion oi iiu ttniRATi' 
{From an Asfiyrian bas-relief) 



was the first capital. We have the record of the building of a 
temple there in 1820 b.c. Later, Nineveh became the capital. 



ASSYRIA AND BABYLONIA 



41 



For many centuries after 1900 e.g., Assyria had but a small 
territory. Tigiatli Pileser I. (1130 e.g.) carried his conquests 
to Cilicia and the Mediterranean, and south to the Persian 
Gulf, but this extension of power was of short continuance. 
About the middle of the tenth century a series of warlike 
kings arose. Asshur-naqir-pal 
(called by the Greeks Sarda- 
napalus I.) made conquering 
incursions into Phoenicia and 
Babylonia, brought back the 
spoils of victory, and built 
palaces and temples. 

Progress of Assyrian Con- 
quests. — Tiglath Pileser II. 
opened a new era. He set 
about organizing the coun- 
tries that were conquered, 
and sought to establish over 
them a permanent system of 
government. He defeated the 
league of Syria and Judea, 
and subdued Babylon, as well 
as Iran and Armenia. These 
countries submitted to the 
Assyrian yoke. Sargon, in 
722 B.C., captured Samaria, 
and dragged off as captives 
a great part of the people, — called the " Ten Tribes,'^ — whom 
he dispersed in various Median cities. At Eaphia, in southern 
Palestine, in 720, in a pitched battle, he vanquished the 
Egyptians and their confederates, and then Egypt was forced 
to pay tribute. In 717 Sargon captured Carchemish, the cap- 
ital of the Hittites, and a center of trade with the East. A 
revolt in Palestine was put down, and Jerusalem was taken. 
Babylonia had renounced its subjection, but its king was car- 
ried in chains to Nineveh, and Sargon was crowned at Babylon. 




King Asshur-nacir-pal 
{Relief from Mmrud, British Museum) 



42 



EARLIEST GROUP OF NATIONS 




Summit of Assyrian Power. — The reign of Sennacherib (705- 
681 B.C.) was an eventful one. He was obliged to raise the 
siege of Jerusalem, which was held by Hezekiah, and was pre- 
vented from attacking his helper, Tirhaka, king of Egypt. 

He destroyed the 
city of Babylon, 
which was rebuilt 
by Es aril add on. 
Under this mon- 
arch, Assyria ar- 
rived at the sum- 
mit of its power. 
One of his achieve- 
ments was the al- 
most complete 
subjugation of the 
Phoenician cities. 
S i d o n was de- 
stroyed. In the 
next reign Tyre was taken, and its trade was largely trans- 
ferred to Carchemish. The other principal achievement of this 
monarch was the conquest of Egypt. He marched into that 
country, took possession of Memphis and Thebes, and placed 
governors, or native rulers, over different parts of the land. 
In 66S B.C. he was succeeded by his son, Assurbanij^al. Gyges, 
king of Lydia, of his own accord sent him tribute. But in 
652 B.C. Gyges joined in an insurrection of subject peoples. 
In this struggle, Egypt was lost to Assyria. 

The Magnificence of Assurbanipal. — The Assyrian king dis- 
played magnificence in his court. He built splendid palaces. 
From his library of clay books, dug in recent times from its 
grave, much of our knowledge respecting Babylonian and 
Assyrian history is obtained. 

The Fall of Assyria. — Saracus, or Esarhaddon II., witnessed 
the downfall of the Assyrian empire. This Avas accomplished 
by an alliance of the Medes and Babylonians. The Medes, 



Lion from Nimrud {British Jliiseum) 



ASSYRIA AND BABYLONIA 



43 



an Aryan people, had been snbject to Assyria for a century. 
Tliey rose in revolt under Phrartes, a native chief, and under 
the leadership of his son, 
Cyaxares. Cyaxares was 
joined by Nabopolassar, 
the viceroy in Babylon, 
who had thrown off the 
Assyrian yoke. Cyaxa- 
res had carried his arms 
as far as the river Ha- 
lys, the eastern limit of 
the kingdom of Lydia. 
He had succeeded in a 
conflict with a horde of 
Scythians which had 
overrun Syria and Ba.by- 
lonia, only the cities 
holding out against 
them. By the allied 
sovereigns, Cyaxares and 
N^ebuchadnezzar, the son 
of Nabopolassar, Nine- 
veh was taken, and As- 
syria was divided be- 
tween Media and Babylonia, with the Tigris for the divid- 
ing line. 

Customs and Religion of the Assyrians. — The Assyrians were 
more fierce than the Babylonians, and treated their captives 
with more cruelty. The Babylonians were the teachers in the 
arts and in literature. Among them monogamy was general, 
but kings and other great personages had a plurality of wives. 
Slavery existed in both lands. The sun and moon and many 
other natural objects were worshiped. The gods were often 
grouped in triads. The national divinity in Babylon was 
Marduk ; in Assyria, Asshur. In both countries there was a 
goddess, called Mylitta in Babylon and Ishtar in Assyria, who 




Genius with Eagle's Head 
{British Miisewm) 



K 



44 



EARLIEST GROUP OF NATIONS 



was at once a goddess of war and of love. She was worshiped 
in part by unchaste rites and practices. Under the names of 
Ashtoreth and Astarte her worship spread in other regions, 
especially in Asia Minor. Prayers and psalms, some of the 
latter being pure in their tone, show to us the best side of 
Babylonian devotion. 




Winged Bull, Kiioksabad 



The Conquests of Babylon ; Nebuchadnezzar. — The fall of 
Nineveh left three principal powers on the stage of action. 
The fourth great power, Egypt, was inferior to Babylon in 
strength. Nebuchadnezzar was now in a situation to lord it 
over Syria. In 598 B.C., he captured Jerusalem and carried 
away the Jewish king, Jehoiakim, as a captive. But Jehoia- 
kim's uncle, Zedekiah, who was left on the throne, with Egypt 
and the Phoenician cities for allies, rose in revolt. Again Jeru- 



ASSYRIA AND BABYLONIA 45 

salem was besieged and captured, the Egyptian ally, Apries II., 
being driven liome. The temple and palace were burned, and 
the king, whose eyes were put out, and all the families of the 
upper class, were carried away to Babylon (586 e.g.). The next 
year the city of Tyre was likewise taken by assault. 

The City of Babylon. — The reign of Nebuchadnezzar was 
one of unrivaled vigor and splendor. Wealth and luxury 
abounded. The city of Babylon now surpassed all ancient 
cities in size, as well as in wealth and grandeur. Its walls, 
with their hundred gates, were forty miles in circumference, 
and inclosed gardens, orchards and fields. Thus the means of 
subsistence for the population in case of a siege were furnished 
from within. In ancient times, as the means of defense kept 
in advance of the means of attack, it was seldom that a walled 
city could be taken, save as the result of treachery or famine. 
In the case of Babylon, the wall was surrounded by a deep 
moat, while the two sides of the Euphrates were connected 
by drawbridges. The temple of Belus, a square inclosure 
about a quarter of a mile in length and breadth, was sur- 
mounted by a shrine in which were a golden table and couch. 
The outermost of the three walls of the royal palace, the exte- 
rior of which was built of baked brick, was three miles in 
length. The Hanging Gardens were a vast structure, ascended 
by steps on the outside, and rising, story above story, to the 
height of seventy-five feet. On the top was a garden in which 
grew flowers and shrubs, and even large trees. 

Fall of Babylon. — Under the successors of Nebuchadnezzar 
there was a loss of vigor in administration. In 538 e.g. Baby- 
lon was conquered by Cyrus, the Medo-Persian king. The 
last king was Nabonetus, who reigned in connection with Bel- 
shazzar. 



CHAPTER VI 

THE PHOENICIANS AND CARTHAGINIANS 

Home of the Phoenicians. — A narrow strip of the coast of 
the Mediterranean, west of the monntains of Syria and Pales- 
tine, a strip about one hundred and fifty miles in length, was 
the home of the Phoenicians. They were the earliest of the 
great seafaring and commercial peoples of antiquity. Sidon 
was the first of the Phoenician cities to grow in power and 
prosperity, but it was early eclipsed by Tyre, with its added 
New Tyre on a neighboring rocky island. 

Arts and Commerce of the Phoenicians. — The Phoenicians 
adopted and improved upon the arts of Babylon and Egypt. 
Through them the alphabet, in a purely phonetic form, was 
carried to the Greeks. Their purple dyes, extracted from a 
shell fish, were everywhere famed, and colored the robes of 
kings. They were skilled in mining, in casting metals, in the 
manipulation of cloths, and in other handicrafts. Their cities 
on the coast were connected by caravan routes with the East. 
Thus they became flourishing marts of commerce. 

Naturally the Phoenicians became a seafaring people, convey- 
ing westward the products of many countries. The vessels of 
the Phoenicians sailed beyond the straits of Gibraltar, and 
under the auspices of the Egyptian king Necho (611-600 b.c.) 
they made a voyage round the southern cape of Africa. Their 
colonies were widely scattered. They planted trading settle- 
ments in Cyprus, Crete, the islands of the Aegean Sea, in 
southern Spain, and in North Africa. Cadiz, the oldest town 
in Europe, was founded by them (about 1100 b.c). " Ships of 
Tarshish" was the designation of large vessels capable of 
making long voyages, Tarshish being a Phoenician settlement 

46 



PHOENICIANS AND CARTHAGINIANS 47 

on tlie Spanish coast. Tyre was a link between tlie East and 
tlie West. It was at the height of its power under King 
Hiram, who lived in the time of Solomon (about 1000 B.C.). • 

The Government and the Religion. — The Phoenicians were 
more eager for traffic than ambitious to make foreign conquests. 
Their government was a monarchy limited by the lay and 
priestly aristocracy. The mercantile class had much influence. 
Their religion made prominent the less worthy, sensual side of 
Semitic heathenism. It did not check, but rather fostered, lust 
and cruelty. The chief deities were Baal and Aschera, with 
the latter of whom another goddess, Astarte, was at length 
identified. To appease Moloch, "horrid king," children, even 
the sons and daughters of noble families, were cast into the 
fire. Baal and Moloch became fused in one divinity, Melkarth, 
in whose honor costly temples were raised at Tyre and Cadiz. 

Loss of Independence. ^- The Phoenicians stoutly defended 
themselves against the Mesopotamian empires. It was five 
years before' insular Tyre surrendered to the Assyrian king 
Sargon. It was held against ^Nebuchadnezzar for thirteen 
years. But the power to resist Babylon in time gave way. 
Later, Tyre was incorporated in the Persian empire. Sidon 
became again the chief city. Tyre was among the conquests 
of Alexander the Great (332 e.g.). 

Carthage. — The most famous of the Phoenician settlements 
was Carthage. It had one of the best of harbors, and the land 
adjacent to it was fertile. Its merchants, as in Tyre, exerted 
much power in public affairs. Its government was vested in a 
council or senate, which was presided over by two kings, but 
the " hundred judges," an aristocratic body, were supreme. 

Naval Power of Carthage. — The Carthaginians, after 600 e.g., 
took up arms to defend the Phoenician colonies against the 
Greeks, the rivals of the Tyrians in trade and colonization. 
In the fifth century e.g! there were repeated wars of Carthage 
with the Greek towns in Sicily. The effect of these struggles 
in this and in the following century was to make Carthage the 
strongest of naval powers. 



CHAPTER VII 



THE HEBREWS 



Early History. — The Israelites traced their descent to Abra- 
ham, who from the plains of Mesopotamia led his flocks and 
herds into the land of Canaan. The motive assigned for this 

forsaking of Chaldea was 
the desire to avoid the 
spreading in f ecti on of 
idolatry. His nomadic 
descendants, permitted to 
settle in Egypt near He- 
liopolis, dwelt there for 
several centuries, a sepa- 
rate people, yet generally 
Avell treated. A change 
of policy and the cruelty 
of the reigning Pharaoh, 
about 1300 E.G., caused the 
Israelites to depart in a 
body into the wilderness 
beyond the Red Sea. 
Their leader, Moses, the 
founder of the Hebrew 
Commonwealth, conducted 
them to the borders of 
Canaan, which they en- 
tered and gradually con- 
quered, save the tribes on the seacoast. Thus they became 
the neighbors of the Phoenicians. 

48 




rBethleheni| 
Hebron'^ MW^\ 



^KINGDOM OF P 
\ JUDAH y^^o " 

\"""o"^^ 



Map of Palestine 



HEBREWS 



49 



Laws and Religion. — In the laws and institutions of the 
Hebrew people, their religion was exalted to the highest place. 
That religion centered in the worship of one God, to the exclu- 
sion of all other divinities and of all visible objects of wor- 
ship. More and more, under the guidance of their teachers, 
the prophets, among whom Moses was ever held to have been 
foremost, Jehovah was acknowledged by the whole people as 
just and holy, and as the sole Creator and Sovereign of the 
world. The struggle of the prophets against polytheism^, and 
idolatry ended in the complete victory of the true religion. 
In the legal system of the Israelites, impiety was dealt with 





The Golden Candlestick 



The Ark of the Covenant 



as treason. The priesthood was vested in the line of the 
successors of Aaron. Political authority in each of the He- 
brew tribes was exercised by the patriarchal chief and by the 
Elders, the assembly of the tribe having the privilege of a veto 
upon measures proposed by the magistrates. 

Era of the Judges. — The era of the Judges follows that 
of the first invasion and settlement. It extends for about 
two centuries from the date of the Exodus. It was an era 
of anarchy and confusion. As a sign of the ]3revailifig disor- 
der there were, we are told, no roads in those days. There 
were local leaders, here and there, but no union. The Phi- 
listines on the western coast overran the country as far as 
the Jordan, and on the east of the Jordan, the tribes were 
threatened by the Amorites. So things went on until a 



50 



EARLIEST GROUP OF NATIONS 



great reformer was raised up in the person of the Prophet 
Samuel. 

Rise and Power of the Monarchy. — Samuel unwillingly 
yielded to the popular demand for a king. Thus authority 
came to be centralized in the monarchs. But at the side of 
the kings were the prophets. They had no civil office, but 
were owned as the inspired guides and teachers of the people, 
and did not hesitate to rebuke and resist apostate or tyran- 
nical rulers. The first king was Saul, but during his lifetime 








'-i\ 



V-^ 









^-7 



The Tabernacle 



Samuel anointed David as his successor. The reign of David 
is the era of Israel's greatest power. He carried his arms as 
far as the Eed Sea and the Euphrates, and crushed the old 
enemies of Israel, the Philistines. In after times, he was 
honored, not only as a valiant warrior, but also as a religious 
poet, and, despite grievous faults, as a saint. 

The reign of Solomon, David's successor, was a period of 
luxury and splendor. He sought to rival the great foreign 
monarchs of the time. Solomon built a palace and established 
a harem at Jerusalem. He erected a magnificent temple, ob- 



HEBREWS 



51 



taining the timber from Hiram, King of Tyre. He organized 
an army, bringing tlie horses for the cavalry out of Egypt. 

The Two Kingdoms ; the Fall of Samaria. — After the deatli 
of Solomon there was a revolt of the ten northern tribes, who 
demanded of his successor, Eehoboam, that their burdens 
should be lightened, for Solomon's grandeur had been very 
costly. They were tired of the hard exactions of the govern- 
ment at Jerusalem. Their complaint was treated with con- 
tempt. Hence they broke off their connection with the tribes 



.=^_^^n>^-;^J!^^K:rf^t^jcii:^^ 



> 




The Temple at Jerusalem 



of Judah and Benjamin. This division into two kingdoms 
brought on the destruction of both. There was a struggle of 
both against foreign powers. The prophets — of whom Elijah 
and Elisha were the chief — constantly resisted the inroads of 
idolatry from abroad. At one time Shishak, King of Egypt, 
captured Jerusalem. The northern kingdom was for a while 
a prey to Syria. Each of the kingdoms vainly sought in 
foreign alliances a defense against the growing might of 
Assyria. Sargon subdued the northern kingdom, captured 
Samaria, its capital, and carried away the king and a great 



52 EARLIEST GROUP OF NATIONS 

part of his subjects to the Euphrates and the Tigris (722 b.c). 
The Samaritans, notwithstanding their continued adherence to 
the Mosaic worship, were hated by the Jews as heretics, and 
as having heathen blood in their veins. 

Hezekiah (725-696 b.c.) Avas a noble and prosperous prince. 
He was a champion of the true religion, and stood by the pure 
teaching and exhortations of the prophets. Sennacherib, the 
Assyrian ruler, led his forces against Jerusalem, but a provi- 
dential interference saved it from being taken. After Heze- 
kiah came IManasseh (696), and for more than half a century a 
loose rein was given to immorality and foreign superstitions. 
The party of truth and righteousness found a voice in the 
prophet Jeremiah. The good King Josiah (638-609) pro- 
claimed anew the laws of Jehovah. He paid tribute to Bab}^- 
lon, which had got the upper hand in conflict with Assyria. 
Fighting for Babylon against Necho, King of Egypt, Josiah 
was slain in the battle of Megiddo. 

'The Babylonian Captivity. — His successors engaged in rash 
revolts against the Babylonian suzerains. The insurrection of 
Zedekiah had for its result, in the time of Nebuchadnezzar, 
the Babylonian Captivity. In this era of terror and disas- 
ter, the conviction that Israel was in possession of the one 
true faith, and that its religion must everywhere prevail, Avas 
deeper than ever. The expectation of a Messiah, the coming 
of a righteous, triumphant Deliverer, became more earnest 
and definite. Through Cyrus, the conqueror of Babylon (539 
B.C.), the exiled Hebrews were set free, and a great many of 
them went back to their own land. 

After the Return. — Prominent among the later leaders in 
this E-eturn of the Jews were Ezra and Nehemiah. The temple 
was rebuilt. There was an intense zeal for the observance of 
the sacred ceremonies. The era of the "hagiocracy," or con- 
trolling influence of the priests, ensued. But national inde- 
pendence perished, except for a brief period under the 
Maccabees. This was a family under whose leadership the 
yoke of the Syrian successors of Alexander the Great was 



HEBREWS 53 

thrown off. But the faith of Israel from the days of the 
Exile was cherished with an increased tenacity. In the loss 
of political freedom^ the distinction of possessing the true 
religion was more highly prized, and the political situation 
favored its diffusion beyond the bounds of Palestine. 

The Legal System. — The legal system of the Hebrews was 
established by Moses. No doubt, even by him, older customs 
and rites were taken up into the codes. But the codes were 
not shut up so that new enactments, both civil and religious, 
such as altered circumstances called for, might not be brought 
in under the sanction of the prophetic guides of the people. 

The Literature. — The Hebrews were not adepts in art or 
science. Even in connection with religion, the danger of 
idolatry kept them from cultivating, like other nations, the 
arts of painting and sculpture. The literature of the Hebrews 
is animated by the spirit of their religion. Their histories 
were written, not as the early Greek histories were written, to 
minister to the curiosity of the present and future times, but 
from the point of view of religion. They were to unveil the 
ways of Providence and strengthen faith in the character and 
designs of Jehovah. Even the fragmentary narratives of the 
remotest past differ from the accounts found among the other 
Semitic nations, by their exclusion of heathen ideas concern- 
ing divine things, and their pure and exalted theism. In the 
principal prophets and in the Psalms, the spirit of devotion, 
coupled with intense moral earnestness in relation to the con- 
duct of life, finds expression in sublime and pathetic jjoems. 
The greatest of the prophets, who were authors of writings, 
belong to the Assyrian and Babylonian age. Such were Amos, 
Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel. 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE PERSIANS 

The Medes and the Persians were Aryan tribes that moved 
westward from the plateau of Iran and the adjacent region. 
They made their way to the south of the Caspian Sea and the 
northern shores of the Persian Gulf. 

The Zoroastrian Religion. — The original seat of the religion 
of the Iranians was Bactria, the region of the upper Oxus. 
In process of time this religion underwent various additions 
and other changes. The sage by whom it was framed into a 
system was Zoroaster, whose date is thought to have been 
somewhere about 1000 b.c. Their sacred book, the Zenda- 
vesta, is made up of parts composed at different times. The 
religion, unlike that of their Aryan kinsmen who planted 
themselves in India, grew into a dualism. There were two 
antagonistic hosts of spirits, the one good and the other evil. 
Ormuzd, the god of light, was the head of one of them; 
Ahriman, the god of darkness, of the other. The Medes and 
Persians were fire-worshipers. They paid homage to the 
rising sun. The task which men had to perform was to keep 
off the spirits of evil. All good and useful things were 
ascribed to the good spirits ; all evil things, as disease, death, 
filth, falsehood, to the evil spirits. 

The Magi. — In early times there were no images of the 
gods. In later times, the superiority ascribed to Ormuzd, as 
the first victor over the opposing spirits, gave a monotheistic 
aspect to the Persian religion. The leaders of worship in this 
developed, dualistic system were the Magi, who sprung from 
one noble family. They were also privy-counsellors of the 

64 



PERSIANS 55 

king. They were not a caste, however, as members might be 
brought in on other grounds than that of descent. 

Median Independence and Conquests. — The rise of the Medes 
was in the time of the decline of Assyrian power. Their 
contest for independence against the Assyrians began with 
Phrartes (647-625 e.g.). Ecbatana was made the Median 
capital. The struggle for freedom was completed by Cyax- 
ares, by whom and his allies the hostile Assyrian Empire was 
broken down. He subdued the Persians about Pasargade and 
Persepolis, and pushed his dominion into Asia Minor as far as 
the Eiver Halys. Under his son, Astyages, these conquests 
were lost. 

Conquests of the Persians under Cyrus. — Cyrus, the leader of 
an insurrection of the Persians against the Medes, succeeded 
to power. He was one of the most renowned of all the ori- 
ental conquerors and monarchs. During his reign (559-530 
B.C.) he annexed to his Persian Kingdom two principal states, 
Lydia and Babylon. The wealthy Croesus, the last of the 
Lydian kings, was overthrown in battle. The Greeks had the 
story that he was sentenced to be burned, but that just as 
the fire was to be kindled, he was heard to utter the name 
"of Solon. Questioned by Cyrus as to his meaning, he repeated 
the observation once made to him by Solon, the Greek sage, 
who, after beholding his treasures, had refused to call him the 
most fortunate of men, giving as a reason that " no man can 
be called happy before his death," for no man can know what 
calamities may befall him. Thereupon, as the tale runs, Cyrus 
spared the life of Croesus, conferred honor on him, and treated 
him with confidence. 

Persian Conquest of Egypt. — The Persian conquest of the 
Greek colonies on the coast of Asia Minor followed upon the 
conquest of Lydia. The deliverance of the Israelites from 
the Babylonian exile and their grateful attachment gave Cyrus 
a friendly people to assist in keeping up his sway in Syria and 
in opening a path towards Egypt, the one power that remained 
to be conquered. The annexation of Egypt was secured by 



50 EARLIEST GROUP OF NATIONS 

the arms of the successor of Cyrus, Cambyses (592-522 b.c). 
There were traditions of the cruelty of Cambyses to the family 
of Psammeticus III., and of his having poured contempt on 
the Egyptian priesthood and faith by stabbing the sacred 
steer. Some of these stories, were we sure of their truth, 
would indicate that he was not of sane mind. 

Darius and his Conquests. — For a short time, — less than a 
year, — a usurper occupied the Persian throne. He was cast 
down and slain by Darius, the son of Hystaspes, who married 
the daughter of Cyrus. As usual on the death of an oriental 
emperor, revolts broke out on all sides in the subject kingdoms. 
These Darius had to reconquer. He proved himself a great 
organizer. He divided his vast dominions into about twenty 
sections, each under the rule of a subordinate governor, called 
a satrap. Darius sent forces into India, explored the Indus, 
and conquered the Punjab. He sent a strong army to the 
Scythian shores of the Black Sea, and if he effected no con- 
quest there, he impressed on the barbarians a sense of his 
power. Thrace was conquered as far as the bounds of Mace- 
donia. Darius put down and harshly punished the rebellion 
of the Greek cities on the Asia Minor coast. His later con- 
flicts with the Greeks on the mainland will be referred to on a 
subsequent page. 

The Persian Government. — The Persian Empire was of vast 
extent. It extended from east to west for a distance of three 
thousand miles, and was from five hundred to fifteen hundred 
miles in width. The head of the empire, the emperor, was a 
despot, and the most abject homage was paid to him. He was 
attired and lived in a gorgeous style; his hunting-grounds 
were 'paradises,' or extensive parks, such as the Persians 
generally delighted in, planted with trees and shrubbery. In 
the government there was a council made up of the seven 
principal families, and a body composed of the nobles of a 
lower class ; but practically neither had any considerable 
power. The satraps were despots, whose doings were reported 
through spies, " the eyes and ears " of the king. When at 



PERSIANS 57 

length the command of the troops was given to the viceroys, 
there was less check upon their power. 

Darius established a system of taxation and a uniform 
coinage. Susa, the seat of the government, was connected 
even with the most remote provinces, by great roads and x:)ostal 
communication. The length of the road from Susa to Sardis 
was seventeen hundred miles. 

The Persian Armies. — The bowmen and the cavalry were 
the most efficient of the Persian troops. The soldiers wore a 
costume peculiar to the several nations to which they belonged. 
The king was guarded by a body of ten thousand footmen, 
the " Immortals," as they were styled. In Avar the Persians, 
when compared with other nations, especially the Assyrians, 
treated their enemies humanely. 

Persian Traits. — Persian youth were taught to read and 
trained in athletic exercises. Rules of etiquette were highly 
valued. The Persians did not excel in science and displayed 
no striking artistic talent. Of the Persian architecture and 
sculpture, we derive our knowledge from the massive ruins of 
the capital, Persepolis, Avhich was burned by Alexander the 
Great, and from the remains of other cities. The distinction 
of this people lay in their ability as soldiers and rulers. 

Retrospect. — The building up of the Chinese nation was the 
principal achievement of the Mongolian race, but China 
exerted no power in shaping the general course of history, 
and halted at a certain stage of progress. India, a home of 
Caucasians and of Aryan immigrants, yet played no effective 
part in the general movement of history. From 1500 to 
1300 B.C., Egypt had the leading place among nations, but at 
an early date Egyptian civilization crystallized in an un- 
changing form. -The rise of the Semitic states deprived that 
country of its preeminence. Babylon, the ancient Chaldea, 
shared Avith Egypt the distinction of being one of the tAvo 
chief fountains of culture, — the source Avhence astronomy, 
writing, and other useful arts Avere disseminated among other 



58 EAKLIEST GROUP OF NATIONS 

Semitic peoples. Babylon was a hive of industry, and was 
active in trade, serving as a link between the East and West. 
But this place was filled more effectively by the Phoenicians, 
the first great commercial and naval people of antiquity, whose 
power reached its acme about 1000 b.c. Among the Hebrews, 
the foundations of the true religion, the religion of monotheism, 
were laid. Meantime the Assyrian monarchy was rising and 
spreading its dominion westward, bringing many nations under 
its yoke. But it was overthrown by an Aryan race, that of 
the Medes and Persians, who, having, under the lead of Cyrus, 
captured Babylon and thus destroyed Semitic power, subdued 
Lydia and Egypt, and acquired a supreme sway. 

Asiatic Civilization. — The extended empires of Egypt and 
Asia combined warring tribes and built cities protected by 
walls, fought off Scythian barbarians, and gave room for the 
rise of useful arts and for trade and commerce. But knowl- 
edge was shut up to limited lines of progress. War was full 
of barbarities. The fine arts were in a rudimental state, as is 
seen in architecture, where magnitude is more sought than 
elegance, and buildings are rather monuments of labor than 
of genius. Literature, except among the Hebrews, is monoto- 
nous, and, with the same exception, religion is void of an 
elevating and purifying influence, but is more apt to foster 
sensuality and revenge. Government is an iron despotism, 
leaving no freedom for individual energy and development. 
It was on the soil of Europe and among the Greeks that the 
true idea of liberty, and a type of manhood much nearer to the 
ideal, were to spring up. 



III. GREECE 



CHAPTER IX 



INTRODUCTION 



The Land. — " Greeks " is not a name which the people who 
bore it applied to themselves. It was a name given them 
by their kinsfolk, the Romans. 
They called themselves Hellenes, 
and their land they called Hel- 
las. Hellas, or G-reece proper, in- 
cluded that portion of the penin- 
sula which lies south of Mount 
Olympus, and is bounded by the 
Aegean, the Mediterranean, and 
the Adriatic. Hellas is some- 
what smaller than Portugal ; but 
it is itself divided by the moun- 
tain ranges which cross it from 
north to south and from east to 
west, into a number of smaller 
districts, each with a seacoast 
of its own, and (in almost every 

instance) with one or more commodious harbors. There are no 
navigable rivers, but communication between different places 
is easier by sea than by land. It follows that the physical 
features of the country fitted it for the development of many 
small active and independent states. 

The Grecian States. — Greece included (1) Northern Greece, 
lying north of the Malian and Ambracian gulfs ; (2) Central 

59 




Zeus of Otkicoli 
{Vaiican Museum, Rome) 




A D B J ^ 



INTRODUCTION 61 

Greece, extending thence to the Gulf of Corinth; (3) the 
Peninsula of Peloponnesus to the south. ISTorthern Greece 
contained among other countries the states of Thessaly and 
Epirus. Thessaly was the largest of the Grecian states. 
Central Greece contained eleven states, among them Boeotia, 
the chief city of which was Thebes. Attica lay southeast of 
Boeotia; its only important town was Athens. In southern 
Greece were eleven countries. The principal cities were 
Corinth and Sparta, the latter being the capital of the state 
of Lacedaemon. The waters between Europe and Asia were 
not a separating barrier, but a close bond of connection be- 
tween the two continents. Greek towns were scattered along 
the western coast of Asia Minor, and the Aegean Sea was 
studded with Greek islands. Among them were Lemnos, 
Samothrace, Delos, and ISTaxos in the northern and central 
Aegean, and Crete in the southern Aegean. 

The Greeks, or Hellenes, were not so much a nation as a 
united race. Their sense of brotherhood, which existed in 
spite of political divisions, is implied in the fabulous belief in 
a common ancestor named Hellen. In addition to their fellow- 
ship in blood, there was a community in language and religion. 
They celebrated together great national festivals, and repaired 
to the hallowed shrines of Zeus or Apollo much as the Jews as 
one family went up to Jerusalem to celebrate their sacred rites. 

Divisions of Greek History. — Greek history embraces three 
general periods. The first is the formative period, and extends 
to the Persian wars, 500 b.c. The second covers the flourishing 
era of Greece, from 500 b.c. to 359 b.c. The third is the Mace- 
donian period, when the freedom of Greece was lost, — the era 
of Philip and Alexander, and of Alexander's successors. 

PerioO I. is divided into (1) the mythical, or prehistoric, age, extend- 
ing to 776 B.C. ; (2) the age of the formation of the principal states. 
Period II. includes (1) the Persian wars, 502-479 b.c. ; (2) the period of 
Athenian supremacy, 478-431 b.c ; (3) the Peloponnesian war, 431-404 
B.C., witli the Spartan, followed by the Theban ascendency, 404-362 b.c 
Period III. includes (1) the reigns of Philip and Alexander, 359-323 b.c; 
(2) the kingdoms into which the empire of Alexander was divided. 



PEKIOD L — GREECE PRIOR TO THE PERSIAN WARS 
CHAPTER X 

THE PREHISTORIC AGE 

The ancestors of the Greeks and Italians were of Aryan 
stock, but the differences between the Greek and Latin lan- 
guages prove that the two peoples had long dwelt apart. The 
Greeks, when they first become known to us, consist of two 
great branches, the Dorians and lonians, together with a less 
distinct branch, the Aeolians. It is probable that the halting 
place of the Hellenes, after their separation from the primitive 
Aryan stock, was Phrygia, in northwest Asia Minor. Thence 
in successive waves they passed over into Greece, whither it 
seems they had been preceded by an older branch of their 
own stock, to whom tlie Greeks gave the name of Pelasgians. 
With the advent of the more energetic and gifted Hellenes, 
the Pelasgians disappeared from view, leaving the ancestors of 
the lonians upon the coast of Asia Minor, and the ancestors 
of the Dorians in tlie highlands of northern Greece. The one 
tribe was eventually to be the founders of Athens ; the other, 
of Sparta. 

Foreign Influences. — The legends of the Greeks bear traces 
of foreign influence from Phoenicia and Egypt, as well as from 
Phrygia. It is probable that as early as the close of the ninth 
century b.c. the alphabet was introduced into Greece by the 
Phoenicians, who first came into contact with the Greeks 
through commercial visits to their ports. In later times, the 

62 



PREHISTORIC AGE 



63 



Greeks were fond of tracing their knowledge of the arts to 
Egyptian sources ; but it is probable that what they owed to 
Egypt was derived from lonians who had previously planted 
themselves in that country. 

The Dorian Migration. — It was in the prehistoric time that 
the Dorians left their home in northern Greece, and migrated 




Lion Gate at Mycenae 



into Peloponnesus, where they proved themselves stronger 
than the lonians and the Achaeans dwelling there. They left 
the Achaeans on the south coast of the Corinthian Gulf, in the 
district called Achaia. Nor did they conquer Arcadia. But 
of most of Peloponnesus they became masters. This is the 
portion of historic truth contained in the myth of the Return 
of the Heradidae, the descendants of Hercules^ to the old king- 
dom of their ancestor. 



64 



GREECE 



Migrations to Asia Minor. — The Dorian conquest is said to 
have been the cause of three distinct migrations to Asia Minor. 
The Achaeans, with their Aeolic kinsmen on the north, estal> 

lished themselves on 
the northwest coast of 
Asia Minor, Lesbos 
and Cyme being their 
strongliolds, and by de- 
grees got control in 
Mysia and the Troad. 
Ionic emigrants from 
^. Attica joined their 

/ "^ ,1 brethren on the same 

\.^ ' ' ^ V ilk cf^ast. The Dorians set- 

tled on the southwest 
coast; they also settled 
Cos and Rhodes, and at 
length subdued Crete. 
The Dorian conquest of 
Peloponnesus, and the 
migrations just spoken of, were slow in their progress, and 
possibly stretched over centuries. 

Character of the Greeks. — Originality \s a distinguishing trait 
of the Greeks, and even when they borrowed from others they 
were never mere copyists. When we leave Asia for Greece we 
find ourselves in another atmosphere and we feel the influence 
of the si)irit of humanity which pervades their life. A regard 
for reason, a sense of order, a disposition to keep everything 
within measure, is a marked characteristic. "Do nothing in 
excess " was their favorite maxim. Their sense of form, which 
included a perception of harmony and proportion, made them 
in politics and letters the leaders of mankind. Their language 
in itself seems like a work of art, so unrivaled is it in flexibil- 
ity, in symmetry, and in perfection of sound. The use of such 
a lucid and discriminating language was itself an education to 
the young Greek, and its effect upon his mind was like the 




The Wrestlers {Florence) 



PREHISTORIC AGE 65 

effect of the invigorating climate of Greece upon his body. By 
physical training he acquired great vigor and grace, and he was 
thus fitted in mind and body to take part in that development 
of civil polity, of artistic discernment, and of complex social 
life which made his people the principal source of modern 
culture. Their moral traits, however, were not so admirable. 
As a race they were less truthful and less marked for their 
courage and loyalty than some other peoples inferior to them 
in intellect. 

Religion. — In early days the simple religion of the Aryan 
fathers received new elements from abroad. The Tyrian deity 
Melkarth appears at Corinth as the hero Melicertes. Astarte 
becomes Aphrodite (Venus), who springs from the sea. The 
myth of Dionysus (Bacchus) and the worship of Demeter (Ceres) 
may be of foreign origin. The same may be true of Poseidon 
(Neptune), the god of the sea, and Apollo, the god of light and 
of healing, whose worship carried in it cheer and comfort. 
Homer and Hesiod, the great poets of the prehistoric age, 
depicted the gods in their dynasties, offices, and mutual rela- 
tions. In later times, there were twelve great gods, whose 
dwelling-place was Mount Olympus in Thessaly. Over them 
Zeus presided. There were also numerous other divinities not 
included among the Olympic, but scarcely less important than 
they. 

Below the gods were the demigods, or heroes. The Greeks 
filled the space before the beginning of authentic records with 
mythical tales of gods and heroes. The exploits of Heracles 
(Hercules) have a prominent place among these legends. This 
hero of Argos was represented, while in the service of a cruel 
tyrant, as delivering men from dangerous beasts by prodigious 
labors, of which the killing of the Lernaean hydra was one. 

The three most famous legendary stories are The Seven 
against Thebes, The Argonautic Expedition, and The Trojan 
War. The first of these stories relates to the fortunes of 
Oedipus and the tragic fulfilment of a prophecy that he should, 
in ignorance, slay his own father and marry his own mother. 



66 



GREECE 



The second deals with the adventures of Jason and his com- 
rades in their search for the gohlen fleece. The third — and 
the most celebrated of all — has for its subject the besieging 
of Troy in Asia Minor by the armies of Greece. The great 




Apollo Belvidere {Vatican Museum, Eomt) 

Homeric poem, the Iliad, describes this mythical war which 
was waged to avenge the wrong done to Menelaus, King of 
Sparta, in the carrying off of his wife Helen by Paris, son 
of Priam, King of Troy. Among the Greek chieftains were 



PREHISTORIC AGE 



67 




Agamemnon, Achilles, and Odysseus (Ulysses). The wander- 
ings of Odysseus in his journey home from Troy form the sub- 
ject of the second great Homeric poem, the Odyssey. Within 
the last century there has been 
much discussion about the au- 
thorship of these two poems. 
Even in ancient times seven 
places contended for the honor 
of having given birth to Homer, 
the blind bard. Smyrna pre- 
sented the strongest claim. 
Whatever their authorship, it 
is probable that these Ionic 
lays were transmitted through 
the oral repetition of them at 
popular festivals by Aeolian 
minstrels, or Ehapsodists. The 
composition of most of these 
lays probably was as early as 
900 B.C. 

Social Life in the Homeric Age. — These poems present an 
invaluable picture of Greek life. (1) Government. The tribe 
appears to be ruled by a king who takes counsel of his chiefs 
and bows to the authority of traditional customs. (2) Manner 
of life. People live in towns or hill-villages, some of which 
were surrounded by walls. Life is patriarchal and, as regards 
the domestic circle, humane. Polygamy does not exist, but 
slavery is firmly established. Women are held in high regard. 
While supreme honor is given to military prowess, a noble refine- 
ment of thought and sentiment often appears in the Homeric 
poems. (3) Arts and Industry. The useful arts are in a rudi- 
mentary stage. The principal metals are in use and the art 
of forging them. There is no coined money; payment is 
made in oxen. (4) Beliefs. The earth is regarded as flat, 
with the river Oceanus flowing round it. The gods are human 
beings with greatly magnified powers. Their chief blessing is 



IIUMEU 

{Sans Souci) 



68 GREECE 

that they never taste of death. Morality is interwoven with 
religion, sacrifice and supplication being the chief forms of 
devotion. The dead live as flitting shadows in Hades. 

Unions of Tribes. — During the period when the Greek popula- 
tion was gradually planting itself in the districts in which we 




Diadem from Mycenae 

find its several fractions in historic times, there arose unions 
among neighboring tribes for the celebration of festivals, the 
care of temples, and other religious purposes. Thus there was 
gradually formed a system of federal unions, in each of which 
one strong state would have the hegemony, or lead. Thus 
twelve tribes in northern Greece banded themselves together 
in early times for the worship of Apollo at Delphi. It was 




Dagger from Mycenae 



called the Delphic Amphictyony, or League of Neighbors. The 
league adopted regulations relating to the conduct of wars; 
and the sanctuary at Delphi, with its prophetic oracle, became 
the inost famous temple in Greece. In early times the influ- 
ence of the managing priests was a wholesome one. In later 
times they lost their reputation for honesty and impartiality. 



PREHISTORIC AGE 



69 




70 



GREECE 



Games. — More important as bonds of union among Greeks 
than religious associations were the national games. The con- 
tests which determined superiority in every kind of activity 
were keenly relished. Successful comi)etitors in physical con- 
tests, as well as in art and literature, Avere highly honored. 
There was a great foiulness for gymnastic exercises. Of the 
four great festivals for public games the Olympic was the most 
celebrated. From the year 77G B.C., which was called the 
"first Olympiad," this festival gathered every fourth year, at 
Olympia in Elis, a great concourse of combatants and spec- 
tators. Any free-born Greek, of whatever country, might 
enter as a competitor in the games, which, after a time, were 




Boxing Glove, with Hard Leather Knuckles 



arranged to last for five days. They consisted of various trials 
of skill and strength, such as running, jumping, boxing, wrest- 
ling, as well as horse races and chariot races. On the head 
of the victor was placed a wreath of olive branches, and a 
palm was placed in his hand. Other more substantial, if not 
more coveted rewards, were generally bestowed by his native 
city. Political advancement not unfrequently followed upon 
triumphs gained at Olympia. 

Greek Literature. — The chief types, both of poetry and of 
prose, originated with the Greeks. Their earliest poetry prob- 
ably consisted of hymns to the gods, and was an outpouring of 
personal feeling. The lyrical type was followed by the epic, 
where heroic deeds are the theme of the song. The epic poetry 
culminated in the ///(/(/ and the Odyssey. 



CHAPTER XI 



THE FORMATION OF THE PRINCIPAL STATES 




Aristocratic Government. — The early kings were oljeyed as 
miicli for their vakjr and strength as for their hereditary title. 
By degrees the noble families about the king took control, and 
the kingship then gave way to the rule of an aristocracy. The 
nobles held sway over the dependent 
farmers who tilled their land. The 
tillers of the soil, artisans, and seamen 
constituted the Demos, or people. Then 
there was the priestly class — particu- 
lar families who held the hereditary 
offices, as those at Athens who had 
charge of the Eleusinian Mysteries. 
There was also the slave class, com- 
posed of foreigners, and the Metoeci, 
or resident foreigners without political 

rights. The demos was originally without a share in govern- 
ment, but as this class grew in strength and knowledge, they 
began a long-continued struggle for freedom. 

The Constitution of Lycurgus. — Tradition tells us that, after 
the Dorian Conquest, the strife between victors and vanquished 
caused disorders in Sparta, and that Lycurgus, a man of royal 
blood, was led to retire to Crete in consequence of them. In 
Crete the old Dorian customs were still observed, and on his 
return he gave to the Spartans a constitution which was held 
in reverence for many generations. The form of government 
established by Lycurgus was an aristocratic republic. The 
council of twenty-eight elders chosen for life by the three 

71 



Greek Woman Embkoidering 



72 



GRKECE 



Phylae, or tribes, was presided over by two hereditary kings. 
The authority of the kings in war time was supreme, but in 
time of peace they had little power. The authority of the five 
Ephors, chosen yearly by the Phylae, greatly increased as tiine 
went on. The Crypteia was an organized guard of young 
Spartans, whose business it was to prevent insurrection. 

Laws and Customs. — The Spartan State was thus aristo- 
cratic and military. The State took into its own hands the 
education of the young, who received not much literary instruc- 
tion, but whose chief 
training was in gym- 
nastics. Healthy chil- 
dren at the age of 
seven were taken from 
their homes to be 
trained, while weak 
and deformed infants 
were left to perish in 
a ravine of Taygetus. 
Girls were separately 
drilled in gymnastic 
exercises, and made 
to be as hardy as 
boys. The Spartan 
men fed at public ta- 
bles, and slept in bar- 
racks, making only 
occasional visits to 
their own h o m e s. 
Marriage was regu- 
hited by the State. There was more purity, and Avomen had 
more influence in Sparta, than in other parts of Greece. Cow- 
ardice was treated with contempt. The strength of the Spar- 
tan army was in the hoplites or heavy-armed infantry. 

Hegemony of Sparta. — Having thus organized the body 
politic, Sparta began wars of conquest. First it conquered 




HoPLiTE (^Bro)izt from Dodoita) 



FORMATION OF THE PRINCIPAL STATES 73 

Messenia in two great wars, from 743-724 b.c, and from 
685-668 B.C. The leader of the vanquished Messenians in 
the first war was Aristodemus, and in the second Aristomenes. 
In the second struggle the Spartans were inspirited hj the 
war songs of the Athenian poet Tyrtaeus. Next Sparta con- 
quered the Arcadians (about 600 b.c), and in 549 b.c. Argos 
succumbed, and the Argive League was dissolved, Sparta gain- 
ing the right to command in all wars waged in common by the 
Peloponnesian states. Sparta also entered into negotiations 
with Lydia (555 b.c), and as early as 510 b.c interfered in 
the affairs of Attica and other states north of the Corinthian 
isthmus, thus sowing among the Athenians the seeds of lasting 
enmity. 

Government in Athens : Draco. — According to tradition 
Codrus, who is said to have died 1068 b.c, was the last of 
the Athenian kings. After the abolition of monarchy an 
Archon was substituted for the king. He was chosen by the 
Eupatrids, or noble families, who stood in a sort of patriarchal 
relation to the common people. The inhabitants were divided 
into four tribes. These Avere subdivided: first, into Brother- 
hoods and Clans ; and secondly, into classes based on consan- 
guinity and classes arranged for taxation, military service, 
etc. The entire community comprised the loobies, the Farm- 
ers, and the Artisans. Soon after we hear of the division of 
the men of the Plain, of the Shore, of the Upland. In process 
of time the oppression of the nobles, in whose hands political 
power was lodged, occasioned the demand for a body of written 
laws. About 624 b.c, in compliance with this demand, a harsh 
and rigid code was framed by the archon Draco. An unsuc- 
cessful rebellion by Cylon was the occasion (594 b.c) of the 
introduction of the constitution of Solon, one of '^ the seven 
wise men of Greece." 

Regulations of Solon. — Solon divided the people into four 
classes, according to their incomes. The archons were chosen 
from the richest, and only they who had served as archons 
were admitted into the Areopagus, the chief court of Athens. 



74 GREECE 

The Ecclesia, or assembly of the whole people, was revived, 
and courts of apjoeal with jury trials were instituted. Servi- 
tude for debt was abolished. Every father was required to 
teach his son a handicraft. 

Parties in Athens. — The legislation of Solon was a com- 
promise. In his old age he beheld the contests between 
three parties, — a reactionary party under Lycurgus, a mod- 
erate party under Megacles, and a progressive party under 
Pisistratus. 

The Tyrants. — As monarchy had given place to aristocracy 
in almost all of the Grecian states, so the reign of a few 
(oligarchy) Avas threatened by the rise of the demos. The 
popular leader, or "demagogue," was usually some conspicuous 
noble. In the seventh and six centuries most of the states were 
governed by absolute rulers who, whether their administra- 
tion was unjust or fair, were termed Tyrants. The oligarchies 
sought to dethrone them, and their overthrow often resulted 
in the introduction of popular sovereignty. Among the most 
noted tyrants were Periander of Corinth (G55-625 B.C.), Pitta- 
cus in Lesbos (589-579 e.g.), and Polycrates in Samos {o3d- 
522 B.C.). 

The Pisistratids. — In Athens, Pisistratus, the leader of the 
popular party, finally gained control of the city by force of 
arms. He managed the government with shrewdness and 
energy. Industry flourished, and the city was beautified. 
After his death, in 527 b.c, Hippias, his son, governed with 
mildness until his younger brother, Hipparchus, was slain by 
Harmodius and Aristogeiton. Then in revenge he laid heavy 
taxes upon the people, and was finally exiled in 510 b.c. 

The Athenian Democracy. — Cleisthenes became the leader of 
the popular party, and may be said to have been the founder 
of the Athenian Democracy. The power of the archons was 
reduced ; all free inhabitants of Attica were admitted to citi- 
zenship, and a council of five hundred (fifty from each tribe 
of ten denies, or hamlets) supplanted Solon's council of four 
hundred. Courts were reorganized, and the banishment, with- 



FORMATION OF THE PRINCIPAL STATES 



T5 



out trial, of dangerous persons by secret vote (ostracism) was 
introduced. Under this system of free government, patri- 
otism and zeal for the honor of the city increased amazingly. 
Athens became more and more prosperous, and culture kept 
pace with prosperity. 

Literature. — In the eighth century, with the tendency to 
democracy, new types of lyrical poetry appeared. These were 




Interior of a Greek House {Restoration) 



the Elegiac and the Iambic. Mimnermus, Solon, Theognis, and 
Simonides were among the most famous masters of the former 
type of verse, and Archilochus was one of the earliest masters 
of both. Music developed in connection Avith lyric poetry. 
Of the Aeolian lyrists of Lesbos, the two great representatives 
were Alcaeus and Sappho. Greek lyric poetry reached its 
climax in Simonides of Ceos, and Pindar, a Boeotian. 

This age also witnesses the beginning of historical writings 
and of philosophic speculations. The Ionian school led the 
way, with Thales of Miletus (620-560 b.c.) as one of its chief 



76 



GREECE 




exponents. Tlie Eleatic school conceived of tlie world as one 
in substance, and held that natural phenomena are unreal. 
To this school belonged Xenophanes, Parmenides, and Zeno. 
Other philosophers were Heraclitus, Empedocles, and Anax- 

agoras. The theory of Py- 
thagoras (580-500 B.C.) Avas 
that the inner substance of 
all things is number. He 
was an ascetic and a mystic, 
discipline of character being 
the primary object of his 
system. 

Colonies. — Mo3t of the Greek colonies were established 
between 750 and 550 b.c. They were either independent 
communities or settlements of the nature of garrisons. In 
Sicily were both Dorian and Ionian communities, and the 
southwestern portion of Italy was termed Magna Graecia 
(Greater Greece). Cyrene, on the coast of Africa, was a 
Dorian colony, and Corcyra was colonized by Corinth. The 
northern shores of the Aegean and the Propontis, and the 
whole coast of the Euxine, were strewn with Greek settle- 
ments. The Greek towns in western Asia Minor, especially 
Miletus, themselves sent out colonies. 



Lyres 




AsciEXT Greek Lamp 



PEEIOD IL — THE PLOUKISHING EEA OF GREECE 



CHAPTER XII 



THE PERSIAN WARS 



The Ionian Revolts. — The cities of Asia Minor were oppressed 
by Persian tyrann}'^, and Miletus under Aristagoras rose in re- 
volt. Athens and Eretria sent help. The insurrection was 
put down, Miletus was destroyed (495 b.c), 
and the Persian monarch Darius swore ven- 
geance upon those who had aided the rebellion. 

The Battle of Marathon. — The first expedi- 
tion sent by Darius under Mardonius was 
unsuccessful, as a storm destroyed the fleet 
off Athos, and the Thracians defeated the 
army. A stronger force under Datis and Arta- 
phernes at first met with some success. At 
Marathon, however, on the coast of Attica, 
the Athenians under Miltiades met and defeated the invaders 
(September, 490 e.g.). The Athenians had been left to bear 
the brunt by themselves. Philippides, one of the swiftest of 
runners, had been sent to Sparta to invoke aid, and had 
reached that city, about one hundred and forty miles distant, 
the next day after he had started. But the Spartans were 
deterred by religious scruples, real or pretended, from march- 
ing before the time of the full moon. The Athenians received 
no reenforcements except a thousand men from Plataea, al- 
though the Persians outnumbered them ten to one. Athens 

77 




Miltiades 



78 GREECE 

had protected Plataea against Thebes, and thus Plataea repaid 
the debt. The credit of the victory is due to Athenian valor 
and the skill of Miltiades, who had obtained leave to tight only 
by the casting vote of the Polemarch. He chose the critical 
moment for the attack. By a rapid march he prevented the 
Persians from attacking Athens after their repulse at Mara- 
thon. This struggle between the East and the West — between 
Asia and Europe — is one of those decisive battles which form 
turning points in the world's history. 

Aristides and Themistocles. — Miltiades subsequently failed 
in his attempt to conquer l*aros, an Aegean island which had 
submitted to the Persians. Accused of making false promises 
to the people, he was fined fifty talents, but died before the 
sum could be collected. His son Cimon paid the fine. A 
rivalry sprang up at Athens between the two leading men, 
Aristides, styled the Just, and Themistocles, an able and 
ambitious man, expert in duplicity and intrigue. Aristides 
was ostracized (484 b.c), and Themistocles was thus left free 
to carry out his favorite policy of strengthening the naval 
forces of the State. 

The War with Xerxes : Thermopylae. — After the death of 
Darius in 485 n.c. Xerxes carried out his father's plan of 
organizing another expedition against Greece. A fleet of 
twelve hundred large vessels cooperated with an immense 
army, which tradition numbers at one million seven hundred 
thousand men. After seven days spent in passing the bridge 
of boats which spanned the Hellespont, the Persian army 
advanced to meet the forces of Greece, united, through the 
efforts of Themistocles, under the hegemony of Sparta. 
Arrived at Thermopylae, a narrow pass, through Avhich the 
invading force sought to pour itself in resistless numbers, the 
Persian monarch was confronted by Leonidas, King of Sparta, 
with a small army of patriots. In July, 480, the attack began. 
For several days the Spartans repulsed every attempt to force 
their position. It was not until a traitor enabled the Persians 
to fall upon their rear that the gallant band were overwhelmed 



PERSIAN WARS 79 

and cut to pieces. When the Persians reached Athens they 
found the city deserted. All citizens capable of bearing arms 
were on board the fleet: the women, with the children and 
movable property, had been removed to places of safety. 

Salamis. — The Greek fleet under the Spartan Eurybiades 
had come from victory at Artemisium into the Gulf of Salamis. 
By means of a device of Themistocles, the Spartans were pre- 
vented from withdrawing their forces to the Corinthian isth- 
mus, where the Peloponnesians had built a wall, for their own 
protection ; and a sea-fight was brought on, of which the Athe- 
nians in Salamis, and Xerxes himself from a hill on the main- 
land, were anxious spectators (Sept. 20, 480). Once more the 
cause of civilization was staked on the issue of a conflict. The 
Greeks were completely victorious, and their land was saved. 
Xerxes hastily marched towards home, thousands of his army 
perishing on the way from hunger, cold, and fatigue. The 
Spartans gave to Eurybiades the prize of valor, to Themistocles 
an olive crown for his wisdom and sagacity. 

Plataea ; Mycale ; Eurymedon. — Xerxes left three hundred 
thousand men behind in Thessaly, under the command of 
Mardonius. In the spring, incensed at the proud rejection of 
his overtures, he marched to Athens, whose people again took 
refuge in Salamis. In the great battle of Plataea (479 b.c), 
the Greeks, led by the Spartan Pausanias, inflicted on him 
such a defeat that only forty thousand Persians escaped to the 
Hellespont. On the same day at Mycale, the Persian fleet was 
vanquished in a sharp encounter, where, as usual, a Spartan 
commanded, but Avliere the Athenians were the most eflicient 
combatants. Sestos, Lemnos, Imbros, and Byzantium were 
taken by the Greeks ; and a double victory of Cimon, the son 
of Miltiades, at the Pamphylian river Eurymedon, over both 
the land and naval forces of the Persians, brought the war to 
an end (466 b.c). 



CHAPTER XIII 

THE ASCENDENCY OF ATHENS 

Pausanias and Themistocles. — Both of the generals by whom 
the Persians had been overcome fell under the displeasure of 
the states to which they belonged. Pausanias was starved to 
death in a temple to which he had fled for refuge upon the dis- 
covery of his plot to raise himself to supreme power by the 
help of the Persians. Themistocles caused Athens to be sur- 
rounded by a wall, and built the first of the two long walls from 
the city to the Piraeus, which he had moved the people to select 
for their harbor. This provoked the jealousy of the Spartans, 
who, in conjunction with his Athenian enemies, procured his 
banishment. He fled to Persia, where Artaxerxes I. received 
him with favor and gave him a princely domain in Asia Minor. 
There he died in 460 b.c. Cxrave as his faults were, Themis- 
tocles was the founder of the historical greatness of Athens. 

Confederacy of Delos. — Aristides succeeded in bringing about 
a confederation of Grecian islands and seaports with Athens 
at their head. The object of the Confederacy of Delos was 
the protection of Greece against Persia. Under the command 
of Cimon, the Athenian fleet was greatly strengthened, and 
gradually the Aegean islands and the small maritime states 
were brought under Athenian sway. The Persians were driven 
out of Thrace and the Chersonese was wrested from them. 

To the Peace of Pericles. — Under the leadership of such men 
Athens became more and more powerful. Aegina, a rich and 
prosperous island, became an Athenian colony, and Megara was 
reduced to the position of a dependency. Sparta could not 
check the growth of her rival, as she had been weakened by a 

80 



ASCENDENCY OF ATHENS 



81 



struggle with Argos and had suffered severely from the results 
of an earthquake which laid most of the city in ruins (465 b.c). 
Sparta even invoked the aid of Athens against the Messenians 
and, through the influence of Cimon, reenforcements were sent 
to her. The jealous distrust of the Spartans, however, led them 
to send the troops back, and this indignity resulted in the 
banishment of Cimon. Sparta sought to reduce the power of 
Athens by raising Thebes to the hegemony of the Boeotian 




West Front of the Partiiexox 
{From the model in the Metropolitan Museum, New York) 



cities. In the conflicts which now ensued Sparta is to be 
regarded as the champion of aristocracy, and Athens of 
democracy. 

After their defeat at Tanagra (457 b.c.) the Athenians re- 
called Cimon, who, after a victory over Sparta by Myronides, 
negotiated a truce between the states. He was a great general 
and a worthy citizen, and he left his country on a lofty pinnacle 
of power and dominion. Though the allies in the confederacy 
of Delos had all become tributaries, Athens had fierce enemies 



82 



GREECE 



in the exiled nobles. Her antagonists became so strong that 
they inflicted npon her a severe defeat at Coronea (447 b.c). 
At this critical moment Pericles concluded a treaty between the 
cities, according to the terms of which there was to be free 
commercial intercourse between them, and each was to keep 
the hegemony in its own circle (445 b.c). 

The Age of Pericles. — For 
fifteen years, as the first citi- 
zen of Athens, and holding the 
office of general, Pericles virtu- 
ally ruled the commonwealth. 
Though he came of an old fam- 
ily, he was democratic in his 
l)olitics. He stripped the Areop- 
agus of many of its high pre- 
rogatives. He secured the 
adoption of a measure allowing 
a stipend to all who entered the 
public service. He caused mag- 
nihcent buildings to be erected, 
of which the Parthenon, the 
temple of Athena (Minerva) on 
the summit of the Acropolis, 
is a celebrated example. Sculpture vied with architecture in 
the work of adornment. Phidias, who had cluirge of the erec- 
tion and decoration of the Parthenon, and of the other build- 
ings of the Acropolis, counted among his nuirvelous creations 
the colossal statue of the Olympian Zeus. 

Pericles was at once a statesman, an orator, a soldier, and a 
man of elegant culture. In his hospitable house, where 
Aspasia, a beautiful and cultured woman, was his companion, 
men of genius found a ready welcome. It was the blossoming 
season of the Greek intellect as regards literature and the fine 
arts. The drama reached its j^erfection in the masterly 
tragedies of Aeschylus, Sojjhocles, and Euripides, and in the 
comedies of Aristophanes. 




(Vatican Jfit.seniii, Howe) 



ASCENDENCY OF ATHENS 



83 



The Athenian community, through its political eminence, 
its intellectual character, so original and diversified, its culture, 

— such that almost every citizen was qualified for civil office, 

— has no parallel in his- 
tory. It is the elevation, 
not of a select class of the 
citizens, but of the whole 
society, which gives to 
Athens its unique distinc- 
tion. Public sx^irit and 
enterprise, which made 
her navy prominent in 
the Aegean and over the 

seacoast of Asia Minor, went hand in hand with delight in 
eloquence and in the creations of genius. There was not, 
however, as some have affirmed, in the prevalent absorption in 
the affairs of state, a neglect of the labors of agriculture and 




Forms of Sandals 






Styles of HairdreIssing 

of mechanical industry. The pleasure of refined social inter- 
course was appreciated. The prevalent artistic taste was grati- 
fied by comely attire in men and women. 

Athens. — No other description of the city itself is equal to 
that contained in the Funeral Oration delivered by Pericles for 
those who had fallen in the war (431 b.c). He dwells upon the 
excellencies of her form of government and upon the merits 
of her military system. He praises the public spirit of her 



84 



GREECE 



citizens and pays a tribute to their patriotism. •' To sum up," 
he concludes, " I say that Athens is the school of Hellas, and 
that the individual Athenian in his own person seems to have 

the power of adapting 
himself to the most va- 
ried forms of action with 
the utmost versatility and 
grace." It is to the histo- 
rian Thucydides that we 
owe the report of this 
celebrated oration. 

Religion. — We find in 
Sophocles a much purer 
moral and religious feel- 
ing than in Homer. The 
gods are still conceived 
of as in bodily form, but 
they are referred to as if 
a single agency were in 
the writer's mind. The 
regal sway of Zeus is em- 
phasized and a monothe- 
istic tendency is manifest. 
Zeus is the fountain of 
law. All those who trans- 
gress are punished. Di- 
rect revelation through 
prophecy was believed in. 
Oracles acquired a new and 
vast importance. Moral 
excellence centered in 
moderation and self-gov- 
ernment — a spirit which included temperance and justice. 
There was a deeper sense of sin than in the Homeric era, and 
death was an object of gloomy anticipation. Domestic affec- 
tion was strong, but every duty merged in patriotism. 




Sophocles {Lateran Museum, Home) 



ASCENDENCY OF ATHENS 



85 



The Drama. — Thespis (about 536 b.c.) was the founder of 
the Greek drama. The Greek theaters were large and open 
to the sky. At first there was only one actor : Aeschylus 
introduced a second actor, and Sopliocles a third. These 
authors, with Euripides, brought the tragic drama to per- 
fection. Comedy, in which Aristophanes (452-388 b.c.) was 




Theateu of Dionysos {Restoration) 

the principal author, dealt largely in satire. Socrates was a 
target for the wit of Aristophanes. 

Greek Art. — The architecture of the Greeks combined sym- 
metry with beauty and grandeur. They more and more broke 
away from the conventional styles of Oriental art. Three styles 
were developed — the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian. 
In the first the column and entablature have the most solid 
and simple form. The column has no base but the common 
platform on which all the pillars stand, and the capital is a 
plain slab. The Ionic column has a distinct base. It is taller 
and more slender, and its capital has two spiral mouldings.; 



86 



GREECE 



The capital of the Corinthian cohimn represents flower calyces 
and leaves. The Doric and Ionic temples were marvelous em- 
bodiments of dignity and grace. The Greeks mastered the art 
of realizing in stone that harmony of which they had a faultless 
ideal. They ascertained and carried out a law of proportion. 
Every part in the edifice was matched to every other. There 



'mm 




Kf.i.i.-i^iJAiL^...^^:,j:viA 


1 




^^, 


^ 













Doric 



Ionic 
Orders of Greek ARCiiixECTrRK 



Cotintftian 



was a certain relation between the width and the height of the 
temple, and between these two dimensions and its length. 
The diameter of the column at its base being the unit of 
measure, the Doric column was from four to six diameters in 
height. The Ionic column was on an average eight diameters. 
In both orders, the column lessened in size towards the upper 
part, the Doric a little more than the Ionic. The unity and 
impressiveuess of the entire structure depended on the definite 



ASCENDENCY OF ATHENS 



87 



mutual relation of its component parts, just as the power of 
music to enchant the listener is the effect of the mutual rela- 
tion and concord of sounds, and through the harmonious rela- 
tions of color a painting delights the eye. Whereas the early 
statues had been of wood, they were now made in brass and 
marble. In sculpture the lofty style of Phidias (488-432 b.c.) 
and of Polycletus of Argos became prevalent in the flourishing 




I'UM 



.1 Paesi 



period of Greek liberty. The Greeks appreciated to the full 
the beauty of nature. Their mythology, '^ rightly understood, 
is an exquisite poem ... and their art is a translation of that 
poem into visible forms of beauty." 

In the period of Greek sculpture which terminated with the 
death of Alexander the Great (323 b.c), the greatest mas'ters 
were Praxiteles and Scopas. The Laocoon, a product of the 
Rhodian school of sculpture, although a masterly group, has 
features which mark it as belonging to a later than the period 



88 



GREECE 



when Greek art appears in its perfection. In the reahn of 
painting the hrst artist of whom we know ninch is Polygnotns 
(about 420 n.c). Apollodorn 



of Athens was distinguished. 




r</// 



J/n^ 



Zeuxis of Herach'a and Parrhasius were masters; while per- 
haps the greatest of all was Apelles. Among his most famous 
works was a painting of Venus rising from the sea, and a 
portrait of Alexander the Great. 



CHAPTER XIV 



THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR 



I. To THE Peace of Nicias 



(421 B.C.) 



To the Death of Pericles. — Athens under Pericles stood 
exposed to two principal sources of danger. Her allies and 
dependents were discontented with her spirit of domination 
and of extortion. On the 
other hand, jealousy of 
her growth led the Do- 
rian and Aeolian states to 
band together against her 
under the leadership of 
Sparta. This Peloponne- 
sian Alliance aimed at 
maintaining a balance of 
power in Greece. An oc- 
casion for conflict arose 
when Athens gave help 
to Corey ra in a war with 
its mother city Corinth, 
made war upon Potidaea, 
and shut out Megara from 
the harbors of Attica. 
Sparta thereupon made 

many demands upon Athens, and, among others, that inde- 
pendence should be granted to Aegina. Upon the rejection 
of these demands Attica was ravaged by Spartan troops, and 




90 GREECE 

the coasts of Peloponnesus by tlie Athenian fleet (431 b.c.).. 
This desolating warfare was kept up until a frightful 
pestilence broke out at Athens. Two of the sons of Peri- 
cles died, and he himself later, weakened by an accumulation 
of public burdens and private sorrows, died also (Septem- 
ber, 429). Thucydides in a celebrated passage describes the 
horrors of this pestilence, which seems to have had its 
origin in Egypt, and to have passed thence over Asia to the 
Greek islands. 

To the Truce with Sparta. — The place of Pericles was taken 
by new leaders of the Democracy, of whom Cleon was the 
most noted. They lacked the refinement and self-restraint 
of Pericles. Plataea was destroyed by the Spartans and 
Boeotians (428 b.c), but the Athenians recovered Lesbos 
and captured Mytilene. To the calamities of the war pro- 
moted by the revengeful temper of the Spartans there was 
added another outbreak of the plague at Athens, besides 
an earthquake, and tremendous rain storms alternating with 
drought. 

Demosthenes, a brave and enterprising Athenian general, 
took possession of Pylos in Messenia. The Athenian fleet 
under Nicias cut off the retreat of the Spartans from the 
island of Sphacteria. Cleon, who succeeded Nicias, took 
Sphacteria by storm and brought home many prisoners. 
Athens had other successes, but was defeated by the P)Oeotians 
at Delium, and by Brasidas, the Spartan, at Amphipolis 
(422 B.C.). In the flight which followed this battle Cleon fell; 
the aristocratic party gained the upper hand, and Nicias con- 
cluded a truce with Sparta for fifty years. Each party was to 
restore its conquests and prisoners. 

II. The Influence of Alcibiades 

The Sicilian Expedition. — From this time Alcibiades, a 
relative of Pericles, plays an active part. Beautiful in person, 
rich, a graceful and effective orator, he was nevertheless rest- 



PELOPONNESIAN WAR 91 

less and ambitious and lacking in the sobriety and disinter- 
ested spirit which, had characterized his kinsman. Three 
years after the peace of Nicias, he persuaded Athens to join a 
league of disaffected Peloponnesian allies of Sparta; but in 
the battle of Mantinea (418 b.c.) the Spartans regained their 
supremacy. At the instance of Alcibiades, an expedition com- 
manded by Nicias, Lamachus, and himself was sent against 
the Dorian city of Syracuse, with the hope of finally conquer- 
ing all Sicily, whose grain markets they desired to control. 
Alcibiades was recalled to answer a charge of sacrilege, but he 
escaped and went over to the side of Sparta. In the attack on 
Syracuse, the Athenians were repulsed, although reenforced 
by land and naval forces under Demosthenes. The retreating 
forces were cut to pieces or captured, and the disastrous 
Sicilian Expedition ended with the death of both Demosthenes 
and Mcias (413 b.c). 

Naval Contests. — After this great calamity many of the 
allies of Athens revolted. The Democratic constitution of the 
city was overthrown and government was placed in the hands 
of a Council of Four Hundred. The army before Samos, of 
which Thrasybulus was leader, refused to accept this change. 
Alcibiades, who had left the Sjoartans out of anger on account 
of their treatment of him, was recalled, and in four months 
after its establishment the oligarchical rule Avas overturned. 
Alcibiades won three brilliant naval victories, the last at 
Cyzicus (410 b.c). Lysander, in command of the Spartan 
fleet, gained a victory during the temporary absence of Alci- 
biades. The latter was deposed and three years later died 
(404 B.C.). The new Spartan admiral, Callicratidas, surrounded 
the Athenian fleet under Gonon at Mytilene. By the strenuous 
efforts of the Athenians, a new fleet was dispatched, and the 
Peloponnesians were completely vanquished at the battle of 
Arginusae (406 b.c). These splendid exertions only availed 
to furnish to coming generations an example of the heroic 
energy and love of country which are possible under free 
government. 



92 GREECE 

III. The Pall of Athens 

Lysander once more took command of the Spartan fleet and 
made an ally of Cyrus the Younger, the Persian governor in 
Asia Minor. He attacked the Athenians at Aegospotami 
(405 B.C.), and routed them with great slaughter. Conon 
escaped to Cyprus with only eight ships. Lysander folloAved 
up this success cautiously but with energy. The Athenians 
were shut in by land and by sea. Famine and treachery did 
their work within the Avails, aii~d at last the city surrendered to 
the Spartan general. 

Democracy was supplanted, and thirty men — the " Thirty 
Tyrants " — of the oligarchical party w^ere established in 
power, with Critias, an able but depraved man, at their head 
(404-403 B.C.). Thrasybulus, a patriot, collected the demo- 
cratic fugitives at Phyle, defeated the Thirty, and seized the 
Piraeus. Critias was slain, and ten oligarchs of a more mod- 
erate temper were installed in power. The two parties at 
Athens were reconciled under the influence of Pausanias, the 

Spartan king. Democracy was re- 
stored in moderate form under the 
archonship of Euclides (403 b.c). 
{^l ^>5i/-^^ '" ^^ ^^'^^ shortly after this change 

M r^\ that the trial and death of Socrates 

'^ X f occurred, the wisest and most virtu- 

^^£i) A^f ous man of ancient times (399 b.c). 

'%h\ ■[^*i^ Philosophy. — Socrates stands at 



( 



% 



J\j^^i*' the head of Greek philosophy. He 

was the founder of moral philoso- 
])h3^ He w^as original, being in- 
debted for his ideas to no previous 
school. He opposed the sophists, 
^""•^":^ who instructed young men in logic 

{Villa Alfxini, Rome) i i i . j_ i • r? ^ • ^ 

and letters, taking lees — r/hich was 
contrary to the custom of the Greek philosophers — and culti- 
vating intellectual keenness and dexterity, often at the ex- 



m 



PELOPONNESIAN WAR 93 

pense of depth and sincerity. The Oracle at Delplii called 
Socrates the wisest of men. He attributed this to the fact 
that he did not erroneously deem himself to be knowing. 
His maxim was, ''Know thyself." By a method of quiet 
cross-examination he made those with whom he conversed 
aware of their lack of clear ideas and tenable, consistent 
opinions, and endeavored to guide them aright. The soul and 
its moral improvement was his principal theme. He asserted 
Theism, and taught the doctrine of a universal Providence. 
He was charged with corrupting the young with his teachings, 
and with heresy in religion. Plato has given the " Apology " 
which Socrates made before his judges. He was convicted, 
and after conversing with his disciples in his customary tran- 
quil tone, he drank the cup of hemlock and expired (May, 
399 B.C.). 

Plato (429-348 b.c), the foremost of his disciples, founded 
the philosophical school known as the Academy. Plato, in 
his discussions, is one of the most inspiring and instructive of 
all authors. No other heathen writer presents so many points 
of affinity with Christian teaching. Aristotle (384-322 b.c.) 
studied under Plato, but elaborated a system of his own. He 
is the founder of the science of Logic. His treatises on Ehet- 
oric and on Ethics have been hardly less important in their 
influence. The impulse given by Socrates gave rise to other 
schools of philosophy. Among these were 
the Cynics, founded by Diogenes. They 
looked with disdain on the ordinary com- 
forts of life. Their manners were as savage 
as their mode of living. 

Historical Writings. — The three principal 
historical writers were Herodotus (c. 484- 
c. 424 B.C.), a charming but uncritical chroni- 
cler of what he heard and saw ; Thucydides, 
who himself took part in the Peloponnesian erodotus 

war ; and Xenophon, an author characterized by naturalness, sim- 
plicity, and a religious spirit. Thucydides displays a profound 




94 



GREECE 



perception of character, an insight into the causes of events, 
a skill in arrangement, and a condensation and eloquence of 
style which are truly admirable. 

Demosthenes corrected his de- 
fects of speech by speaking with 
pebbles in his mouth, and trained 
himself to face a noisy assembly by 
declaiming in storms on the sea- 
shore; but this prince of orators 
fashioned his style by the study 
of Thucydides, whose history, as 
the story ran, he had copied 
eight times and even learned by 
heart. The historian had seen 
the growth of Athens in his early 
days, and its beauty in the time 
of Pericles, when it was adorned 
with works of art of which he 
writes that "the daily delight of them banishes gloom." He 
spared no pains to ascertain the truth and to relate it with 
accuracy, although, after the usual manner of ancient histo- 
rians, he himself composes the speeches, in which, as he avows, 
are embodied what are conceived to be the motives and feelings 
of the actors in the great struggle. Yet the general piu^port of 
what they said he professes to have faithfully rendered in lan- 
guage of his own. AVhen he is obscure, it is owing to his effort 
to be brief, and to his economy of words; for every sentence is 
filled with meaning. 




CHAPTER XV 

RELATIONS WITH PERSIA — THE SPARTAN AND 
THEBAN HEGEMONY 

The Retreat of the Ten Thousand. — The Persian Empire was 
torn with civil strife. Xerxes and his eldest son had been 
murdered (465 b.c), and on the death of Darius II. (423-404 
B.C.) the Younger Cyrus undertook to dethrone his brother, 
Artaxerxes 11. His army, made up largely of hired Greek 
troops, was defeated at Cunaxa, not far from Babylon, and 
Cyrus fell in the combat. Clearchus, the Greek commander, 
was slain through an artifice, and Xenophon, who had accom- 
panied the army as a volunteer, conducted the celebrated 
Retreat of the Ten Thousand. The story of his march is told 
by him in the Anahasis. 

The Corinthian War and the Peace of Antalcidas. — Tissapher- 
nes, the antagonist and successor of the Younger Cyrus, united 
with Sparta in attempting to overthrow the Ionic cities which 
had espoused the cause of Cyrus. King Agesilaus defeated 
the Persians near the Pactolus (395 B.C.). Then the Persians 
stirred up an enemy nearer home by the use of gold, and the 
Boeotians, Corinthians and the Argives, joined by Athens, took 
up arms against the Lacedaemonians. Lysander fell in battle 
with the allies (395 b.c). Conon, the Athenian commander, 
destroyed the Spartan fleet at Cnidus. Agesilaus was recalled, 
but his victory at Coronea (394 b.c.) did not avail to turn the 
tide in favor of Sparta. Conon rebuilt the long walls at 
Athens with the assistance of Persian money. 

The issue of the conflict was the Peace of Antalcidas with 
Persia (387 b.c.) by which the Grecian cities of Asia Minor 
were given up to the Persians, together with the islands of 

95 



96 ' GREECE 

Clazomenae and Cyprus. With the exception of Lemnos, 
Imbros, and Scyros, which the Athenians were to control, all 
of the other states and islands were to be free and independent. 
This was a great concession to Persia. Greek union was 
broken up ; each state was left to take care of itself as it best 
could. Antalcidas cared little for his country ; his treaty was 
the natural result of Spartan aggressiveness and selfishness. 

Contest of Thebes and Sparta. — The Spartans had fallen 
away from the old rules of life ascribed to Lycurgus; they 
were possessed by a greed for gold, and there were extremes 
of wealth and poverty among them. After the treaty of 
Antalcidas, they still lorded it over other states, and were 
bent on governing in Peloponnesus. At length they were 
involved in a contest with Thebes. This was caused by the 
seizure of the Cadmeia, the Theban citadel, by the Spartan 
Phoebidas, acting in conjunction with an aristocratic party in 
Thebes (383 b.c). The Theban democrats, who, under Pelop- 
idas, made Athens their place of rendezvous, liberated Thebes, 
and expelled the Spartans from the Cadmeia. 

Hostile attempts of Sparta against Athens induced the 
Athenians to form a new confederacy (or symmachy) com- 
posed of seventy communities (378 B.C.) ; and after they had 
gained repeated successes on the sea, the two states concluded 
peace. 

Athens had become alarmed at the increased power of 
Thebes, and was ready to go over to the side of Sparta, her 
old enemy. It was a feeling in favor of a balance of power 
like that which had prompted Sparta at the close of the 
Peloponnesian war to refuse to consent to the destruction of 
Athens, which Thebes and Corinth had desired. Cleombrotus, 
King of Sparta, again invaded Boeotia. The principal Boeotian 
leader was Epaminondas, one of the noblest patriots of all 
Grecian history, — in his disinterested spirit and self-govern- 
ment resembling Washington. The Spartan king Avas defeated 
by him in the great battle of Leuctra (371 b.c), and was there 
slain. At this time the rage of party knew no bounds. The 



SPARTAN AND THEBAN HEGEMONY 



9T 



wholesale massacre of political antagonists in a city was no 
uncommon occurrence. 

Theban Hegemony. — The victory of Leuctra gave the hegem- 
ony to Thebes. Three times the Boeotians invaded the Spartan 
territory. They founded Megalopolis in Arcadia, to strengthen 
the Arcadians against their Lacedaemonian assailants (370 e.g.). 
They also revived the Messenian power, recalled the Messenians 
who had long been in exile, and founded the city of Messene. 
In the battle of Mantinea (362 e.g.), Epaminondas, though 
victorious against the Spartans and their allies, was slain. 
Peace followed among the Grecian states, the Spartans alone 
refusing to be a party to it. In the course of this intestine 
war, the Thebans had broken up the new maritime sway 
gained by them. 




The AciiuPoLis in its rniitiKAT Condhtun 




( 



PEEIOD III. — THE MAOEDOmAIf EKA 



CHAPTER XVI 

PHILIP AND ALEXANDER 

The Macedonians. — The Macedonians were a mixed race, 
partly Greek and partly Illyrian. At first an inland com- 
munity, living in the country, rough and uncultivated, they 
had been growing more civilized by the efforts of their kings 
to introduce Greek customs. The people were hardy and 
brave. 

When Epaminondas died, Philip (359-336 b.c.) was on the 
Macedonian throne. He had lived three years at Thebes and 
had learned much from Epaminondas, the best strategist and 
tactician of his day. Philip had a well-drilled standing army, 
while the Greeks, exhausted by long-continued war, had come 
to rely much on mercenary troops and were just in a condition 
to fall under the dominion of Macedonia. Philip made the 
Olynthians his allies, crossed the Strymon, and conquered the 
western part of Thrace. There for purposes of defense he 
founded the city of Philippi. 

The Sacred War. — The Phocians in their contest to throw 
off the Theban supremacy had seized the lands of the temple 
of Delphi. Philip availed himself of the Sacred War, which 
then ensued, to unite with the Thessalian nobles and array 
himself against Athens and Sparta, which had joined the 
Phocians. In his character of champion of the Amphictyonic 
Council, he overcame his adversaries and took his place in 
that body in the place of the Phocians (346 b.c). 

99 



100 



GREECE 




Demostiiex ks ( J/« n ic/i) 



Demosthenes. — The Athenians, at the head of an Aegean 
League, might have checked Philip had they managed with 
more spirit and prudence. 
There was, however, only 
one man who penetrated the 
designs of Philip, and exerted 
all his powers to stimulate 
his countrymen to resistance. 
This was Demosthenes (385- 
322 B.C.). Overcoming natu- 
ral obstacles, he attained a 
place at the head of all ora- 
tors, ancient and modern. | 
He was a great statesman f ' 
and an ardent patriot. On k 
Philip's conquest of Thes- 
saly, Demosthenes made 
against him the first of a series of famous speeches known 
as Philippics (352 b.c). His Oration on the Crown was a 
splendid defense of what he had done in behalf of Athens and 
for Greek liberty. 

A Macedonian party was formed at Athens, a foremost 
leader of which was AescHines, not a good citizen, but an 
orator only second in rank to Demosthenes. As Philip con- 
quered and destroyed city after city, they contended that 
it was futile to resist his advance. Demosthenes endeavored 
in vain to dissuade the Peloponnesian cities from continuing 
to adhere to Philip. He gathered a strong party about him 
at Athens. Philip's overtures of peace were rejected, and 
Athenian forces obliged the king to give up the siege of 
Byzantium (341 b.c). Though the influence of Demosthenes 
was thus enlarged, Aeschines, as a deputy to the Amphictyonic 
Council, contrived to bring about another Holy War, which 
gave Philip the command, and enabled him to seize Elatea. 
Aroused by Demosthenes, Athens and Thebes formed an alli- 
ance, but the allies were defeated at the fatal battle of 



PHILIP AND ALEXANDER 



101 




Chaeroiiea (August, 338 b.c), where Alexander, Philip's youth- 
ful son, decided the fortune of the day by vanquishing the 
Theban Sacred Band. The Thebans were treated with 
severity, but favorable terms were granted to Athens. 

Charging into Peloponnesus, Philip took away most of 
Sparta's territory and apportioned it among the Messenians, 
Argives, and Arcadians. At a national assembly at Corinth, 
he caused himself to be created leader of the Grecian forces 
against Persia, with the powers 
of a dictator. Not long after- 
wards, at the marriage festival 
of his daughter, he was assas- 
sinated by means of a con- 
spiracy in which his queen is 
thought to have been a part- 
ner (336 B.C.). 

Alexander the Great. — Alexan- 
der was twenty years old when 
his father died. His bodily 
health and vigor qualified him 
for combats and toils which few 
soldiers in his army could en- 
dure. His energy, rapidity, and 
military skill lift him to a level with Hannibal and the fore- 
most commanders of any age. He was not without a gener- 
ous appreciation of art and literature. The great philosopher 
Aristotle had been one of his tutors. Por the eminent authors 
and artists of Greece he cherished a warm admiration. Homer 
was his delight, and in Homer he took Agamemnon for his 
model. His temper was passionate and imperious. Espe- 
cially when his passions were inflamed by strong drink, — as 
at banquets, occasions where Macedonian princes before him 
had been wont to drink to excess, — he was capable of savage 
deeds. 

Alexander in Greece : his Army. — Alexander was recognized 
as the leader of Greece at a congress in Corinth. While he 



'■J 




Alexander 

{Found in IIadrian''s Villa) 



102 GREECE 

was absent upon an expedition against the barbarous peoples 
north of Macedonia, a false report of his death led to an • 
uprising of the Greeks. Eeturning suddenly, he leveled ^ 
Thebes with the ground, by way of revenge, and he spared 
Athens only in response to her prayer for pardon. Thus 
ended resistance in Greece, and Alexander turned his atten- 
tion to the conquest of the Persian Empire. His army was 
strong through its valor and discipline rather than in num- 
bers. The phalanx of native Macedonians was used for 
the decisive charge in battles in which other troops began the 
fighting. A second body of picked men was known as the 
Guard, and there was a band of young Macedonian soldiers 
called pages. There were not more than forty thousand men 
in all ; but in Alexander they had a general who was a mili- 
tary genius of the first order. 

The Campaign of Alexander : To the Battle of Issus. — In the 
spring of 334 B.C., having crossed the Hellespont, Alexander 
performed various rites at Ilium (Troy) in honor of the heroes 
of the Trojan war, since he regarded himself as their lineal 
descendant and his expedition as a renewal of the old conflict. 
At the passage of the river Granicus, he defeated a Persian 
army and gained the submission of the whole of Asia Minor. 
At Tarsus he was cured by his physician Philip of a dangerous 
fever, brought on by a bath in the chilly water of the river 
Cydnus. In 333 b.c, he met and defeated Darius III., the 
king of Persia, in a valley near Issus in Cilicia. This memo- 
rable battle settled the fate of the Persian Empire. 

To the Battle of Arbela. — Syria and Phoenicia submitted, 
although Tyre fell only after a siege of seven months. After 
capturing Gaza, Alexander entered Egypt and founded the 
city of Alexandria, in its consequences one of the most memo- 
rable acts of his life. He marched (331 b.c.) through Libya 
to the temple of Jupiter Amnion, where the priest addressed 
him as the veritable son of the god. Having thus subdued 
the lands on the west, he passed through Palestine and Syria 
by way of Damascus, crossed the Euphrates and Tigris, and at 



PHILIP AND ALEXANDER 103 

Arbela defeated a Persian army more than twenty times as 
large as his own (October, 331 b.c). 

To the Invasion of India. — Babylon and Susa, as well as 
Persepolis and Pasargadae, fell into the conqueror's hands. 
He reduced Persepolis to ruins, and pursued the flying king 
Darius into Parthia, where, to prevent a surrender, the fugitive 
was murdered by Bessus, one of his own nobles. Marching 
east and south through Persia and the modern Afghanistan, he 
put Philotas, one of his best officers, to death, on the charge of 
conspiracy against his life, and ordered the murder of his best 
general, Parmenio. He founded cities in different places, and 
crossed the Oxus and Jaxartes. At Samarcand, in a drunken 
revel, he slew Clitus, the friend who had saved his life in the 
battle of the Granicus. In a fit of remorse, he went without 
food or drink for three days. In Bactria he married Eoxana, 
a princess of the country. By this time his head was turned 
by success, and he began to demand of his followers the cring- 
ing adulation paid to Oriental monarchs. 

To the Death of Alexander. — Crossing the eastern Caucasus 
(the Hindu-Kush), Alexander moved down the Indus and 
defeated the Indian prince Porus on the farther side of the 
Hydaspes. At the river Hyphasis the Macedonian troops 
would go no farther, and Alexander turned back (327 b.c), 
moving down the Plydaspes with army and fleet to the Indus, 
and down the Indus to the sea. Nearchus, his admiral, sailed 
along the shore to the west, while Alexander conducted the 
rest of the army, amid infinite hardships, through the desert, 
and finally met him on the coast. At Susa, in 325, he mani- 
fested his purpose of combining Macedonia and Greece with 
the East in one great empire. He adopted the Persian custom 
and ceremonial, and married both the daughter of Darius III. 
and the sister of Artaxerxes III. He prevailed on eighty of 
his Macedonian officers and ten thousand Macedonian soldiers 
to take Persian wives. He himself exacted the homage paid 
to a divinity. These measures were unpopular with his old 
comrades and subjects, and he was called upon to quell a 



104 GREECE 

mutiny, which he did with great skill and courage (Jul}^, 324 
B.C.). After a reign of twelve years and eight months, a fever 
contracted in the marshes about Babylon, and aggravated by 
daily revels, terminated his remarkable career. 

Influence of Alexander.— Alexander has been called an adven- 
turer. To overcome the gigantic Persian Empire, however, 
although it had but little vitality, required not only wonder- 
ful military talents but also unmatched vigilance and pains- 
taking. His exploits read more like fable than history. The 
most substantial result of them was to spread Hellenism, — to 
diffuse at least a tincture of Greek civilization, together with 
some acquaintance Avith the Greek language, over the lands of 
the East. This result has had a bearing not only upon the 
history of antiquity, but more remotely on the history of all 
subsequent times. 





Greek Shields 



CHAPTER XVII 

THE SUCCESSORS OF ALEXANDER 

Divisions of the Empire. — Alexander left no legitimate chil- 
dren. Alexander the younger, the child of Koxana, was born 
after his father's death. The empire naturally fell to his 
princij^al generals, who were soon reduced to three, — Antip- 
ater, Craterus, and Perdiccas. Ptolemy withdrew from the 
rivalship, preferring to devote himself to his own province of 
Egypt. The government was carriecL on in the name of 
Roxana's son and Alexander's half-brother, Arrhidaeus. Per- 
diccas, finding that each general was disposed to be a king in 
his own dominion, formed a plan to seize the empire for him- 
self. In a series of wars lasting for twenty-two years, Per- 
diccas, who was contending for the unity of the empire, was 
defeated by the rebellious satraps, of whom Antigonus was the 
most powerful. He, in his turn, attempted to make himself 
sole ruler, and the formation of a league against him (315 b.c.) 
led to a treaty of peace by which Cassander, the son of 
Antipater, was to retain Macedonia. By him Eoxana and the 
young Alexander were put to death. In a second war against 
Antigonus, Cassander was victorious at Ipsus (301 b.c). An- 
tigonus was slain, and his son Demetrius fled to Greece. The 
final result of the protracted contest was the division of the 
Macedonian Empire into three principal monarchies, — Mace- 
donia, under the Antigonidae ; Egypt, under the Ptolemies ; 
and Syria, under the Seleucidae. 

I. The Kingdom of the Ptolemies 

Ptolemy Lagi (323-283 b.c). — "When Alexander transferred 
the seat of power in Egypt from Memphis to Alexandria, he 

105 



SUCCESSORS OF ALEXANDER 107 

accomplislied results which he could not at all foresee. The 
Greek element became predominant in Egyptian affairs. A 
great stimulus was given to commerce and to foreign inter- 
course. The Egyptians themselves entered zealously into 
industrial pursuits. Ptolemy Lagi, the first of the new sover- 
eigns, was wise enough to guard his own territory, and even to 
establish his rule in Palestine, Phoenicia, and Coele-Syria, but to 
avoid extensive schemes of conquest. He subdued Cyrenaica, 
on the west of Egypt, and the intermediate Libyan tribes. 

Ptolemy was an absolute monarch, but he retained promi- 
nent features in the old Egyptian administrative system, gave 
offices to Egyptians, and protected their religion. In Alex- 
andria the Jews were very numerous. The Hebrew Scriptures 
were there translated into Greek in the version called the 
Septuagint. The most important civil and all military offices 
were reserved for Graeco-Macedonians : Alexandria was a 
Greek city. Erom the beginning Ptolemy fostered learning 
and science. He set to work to collect a great library in a 
building connected with his palace. He founded the Museum, 
which was a college of professors. It attracted a great body 
of students, and became the university of the eastern world. 
Under his patronage, mathematicians, poets, and critics of 
high repute flourished. Among the structures raised by him 
were the lighthouse of vast height on the island of Pharos, 
which was connected with the shore by a mole, or cause- 
way, a mile in length ; the Soma, or mausoleum, said to have 
contained the body of Alexander ; the Temple of Serapis, com- 
pleted by his son ; and the Hippodrome. 

Ptolemy Philadelphus. — Ptolemy IL, surnamed Philadelphus 
(285-247 B.C.), with less talent for war than his father, greatly 
enlarged the library, and did much to encourage learning and 
commerce. 

Ptolemy Euergetes. — Ptolemy III. (247-222 e.g.), surnamed 
Euergetes (the benefactor), was also a patron of art and litera- 
ture. He raised Egypt to the highest pitch of prosperity, but 
was followed by a series of nine incompetent and depraved kings- 



108 GREECE 

II. Macedox axd Greece 

When Alexander was in the far East, the Spartan king 
Agis III. (330 B.C.) headed an nnsuccessfnl revolt against 
Antipater. The death of Alexander rekindled the hope of 
regaining liberty among patriotic Greeks ; a confederacy was 
formed, and Leosthenes, the Greek commander, defeated Antip- 
ater and shut him up within the Lamia. The Greeks were 
finally beaten at Crannon. Favorable terms were granted to 
all cities except Athens and Aetolia. Demosthenes was forced 
to take refuge in the Temple of Poseidon (Neptune) on the 
little island of Calaurea. Finding himself pursued by an offi- 
cer of Antipater, this intrepid statesman, who had served the 
cause of liberty amid direst perils, ended his life by taking 
poison. The Democracy again accpiired power temporarily, 
and Phocion, the leader of the anti-democratic party, was 
condemned to death. 

The Achaean League. — The growth of the Achaean League 
and the Aetolian League was favored by the conquest of 
Macedonia by a horde of Gauls who swept into Greece in 
279 B.C. The Achaean League was at first made up of ten 
Achaean cities. Its object was to free Greek cities from sub- 
jection to the Macedonians. Peloponnesus, except Sparta, 
joined it, together with Athens and Aegina. 

The Aetolian League. — The Aetolian League obtained com- 
mand of Phocis, Locris, and Boeotia. A praiseworthy attempt 
at reform Avas made in Sparta by the king Agis IV. (240 b.c), 
who was opposed by the rich and put to death. Cleomenes, 
his successor, engaged in conflict with the Achaean League, 
which then called in Macedonian help (227 b.c). Sparta was 
overthrown. Soon a war between the Leagues broke out, and 
the Achaeans again called on the Macedonians for aid. These 
conflicts were but manifestations of the suicidal spirit of 
disunion which at many crises splintered the power of Greece 
when she needed all her strength to meet a foreign foe. She 
owed her downfall to the desolating influence of faction ; for 



SUCCESSORS OF ALEXANDER 109 

the conflicts which have just been described were followed by 
the interference of the Komans. 

Greek Philosophy and Culture. — In the Greek world the prog- 
ress of investigation and reflection tended to produce disbelief 
in the old mythological system. With the loss of liberty, 
Greek philosophy developed a tendency to look at mankind 
more as one community. This was a feature of the philosophy 
of the Stoics, who taught that virtue is the only good ; that it 
consists in living according to nature ; that reason should be 
dominant, and that the emotions should be kept down by an 
iron Avill. This is the Stoic apathy. The Epicureans, on the 
other hand, made pleasure the chief good, holding that it was 
to be secured by such a regulation of our desires as will yield, 
on the whole, the largest amount of happiness. 

In the Greek cities which were founded by the Macedonians 
the political life and independence which Greeks had for- 
merly enjoyed did not exist. The Hellenistic literature and 
culture, as it was called, lacked the energy and spirit of the 
old time. Poetry languished. The prose was the prose of 
learned inquiries, criticism, and science. Euclid systematized 
geometry. Archimedes, who died in 212 e.g., is said to have 
invented the screw and was skillful in mechanics. Eratos- 
thenes founded geography, descriptive astronomy, and scientific 
chronology. '^The Alexandrian Age busied itself with literary 
or scientific research, and with setting in order what the 
Greek mind had done in its creative time." 

III. The Syrian Kingdom 

The Syrian kingdom Avas founded by Seleucus I. (Nicator) 
(312-280 B.C.). From Babylon he extended his dominion to 
the Black Sea, the Jaxartes, and even to the Ganges. He 
founded Antioch on the Orontes and made it his capital. 
He likewise founded Seleucia on the Tigris, which as a com- 
mercial city was second only to the Parthian metropolis of 
Ctesiphon opposite it. With his son Antiochus I. begins the 



110 GKEECE 

decline of the Empire tlirougli the influence of oriental luxury 
and vice. Syria lost eastern Asia Minor through the invading 
Gauls, and Antiochus II. (261-246 b.o.) was unable to hold 
the provinces in subjection. Antiochus III. (the Great) (223- 
187 B.C.) checked the Parthians and ]>actrians, and expelled 
the Egyptians from Asia, but prepared for the downfall of the 
Syrian Empire by provoking the hostility of the Eomans. 

Palestine ; the Maccabees ; the Idumaean Princes. — Palestine, 
Avhich had fared comparatively well when the Ptolemies had 
control, was surrounded and invaded by Gentilism when it 
fell under the sway of Syria. The perils to which their 
religion was exposed by the heathen without, and by a luke- 
warm party within, made earnest Jews (the bulk of the ]>eo]^le) 
more inflexible in their adherence to their law and customs. 
The party of the Pharisees grew out of the intensity of the 
loyal and patriotic feeling which was engendered in the periods 
following the exile. The synagogues, centers of worship and 
of instruction scattered over the land, acted as a bulwark 
against the intrusion of heathen doctrine and heathen prac- 
tices. The resistance to these dreaded evils came to a head 
when the Syrian ruhn-, Antiochus Epiphanes, embittered by his 
failures in conflict with Egypt, resolved to break down religious 
barriers among his sul)jects, and, for this end, to exterminate 
Jewish worshi]!. In iCxS ];.c., he set up an altar to Jupiter in 
the temple at »Iei'usalem, and even compelled Jewish i)riests 
to immolate swine. Then the revolt broke out in which the 
family of Maccabees were the heroic leaders. Judas jMaccabeus 
recovered the temple, but fell in battle (160 b.c). Under his 
brother Simon victory was achieved, and the independence of 
the nation secured. The chief power remained in the hands 
of this family, the Asmonaean princes, until their degeneracy 
paved the way for Roman intervention under Pompeius. His 
adviser was the Idumaean, Antipater, a Jewish proselyte, who 
was made procurator of Judea by Julius Caesar (47 b.c), and 
whose son Herod was made king (;)9 n.c). 



MACEDONIAN ROYAL HOUSES 



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ly. ROME 



CHAPTER XVIII 

INTRODUCTION 

Place of Rome in History. — Rome is the bridge which unites, 
while it separates, the ancient and the modern world. The 
history of Kome is the narrative of the building up of a single 
city, whose dominion gradually spread until it comprised all 
the countries about the Mediterranean, or what were then the 
civilized nations. " In this great empire was gathered up the 
sum total that remained of the religions, laws, customs, lan- 
guages, letters, arts, and sciences of all the nations of antiquity 
which had successively held sway or predominance." Under 
the system of Roman government and Roman law they were 
combined in one ordered community. It was out of the wreck 
of the ancient Roman Empire that the modern European 
nations were formed. Their likeness to one another, their 
bond of fellowship, is due to the heritage of laws, customs, 
letters, religion, which they have received in common from 
Rome. 

The Inhabitants of Ancient Italy. — Until a late period in 
Roman history, the Apennines, and not the Alps, were the 
northern boundary of Italy. Most of the region between the 
Alps and the Apennines, on both sides of the Po, was inhab- 
ited by the Gauls, akin to the Celts of the same name north 
of the Alps. On the west of Gallia were the Ligurians, a 
rough people of unknown extraction. People thought to be 
of the same race as the Ligurians dwelt in Sardinia and in 

113 



114 



ROME 



Corsica, and in a p"art of Sicily. On the east of Gallia were 
the Venetians, who were prol)ably of Illyrian descent. 

The Apennines branch off from the Alps in a southeasterly 
direction until they near the Adriatic, when they turn to tlie 
south, and descend to the extreme point of the peninsula, thus 
forming the backbone of Italy. On the west, in the central 
portion of the peninsula, are the hilly district called by the 
ancients Etruria (now Tuscany), and the plains of Latium and 
Campania. What is now termed the Campagna, the district 




The Cami'agna and Aoi i; 



about Rome, is a part of ancient Latium. The Etrurians dif- 
fered widely, both in appearance and in language, from the 
Romans. They were not improbably Aryans, but nothing 
more is known of their descent. In the east, in what is now 
Calabria, and in Apulia, there was another people, the lapy- 
gians, whose origin is not certain, but who were not so far 
removed from the Greeks as from the Latins. The southern 
and southeastern portions of the peninsula were the seat of 
the Greek settlements, and the country was early designated 
Great Greece. Leaving out the Etrurians, lapygians, and 
Greeks, Italy, south of Gallia, was inhabited by nations allied 
to one another, and more remotely akin to the Greeks. These 



INTRODUCTION 115 

Italian nations Avere divided into an eastern and a western 
stock. The western stock, the Latins, whose home was in 
Latium, was much nearer of kin to the Greeks than was the 
eastern. The eastern stock comprised the Umbrians and the 
Oscans. It included the Sabines, Samnites, and Lucanians. 

Italy and Greece. — In two important points, Italy is geo- 
graphically distinguished from Greece. The seacoast of Italy 
is more uniform, not being broken by bays and harbors ; and 
it is not cut up, like Greece, by chains of mountains, into 
small cantons. The Eomans had not the same inducement to 
become a seafaring people ; there were fewer cities ; there was 
an opportunity for closer and more extended leagues. It is 
remarkable that the outlets of Greece were towards the east; 
those of Italy towards the west. The two nations were thus 
averted from one another; they were, so to speak, back to 
back. 

The Greeks and Romans. — The Greeks and Eomans were 
diverse in their natural traits, although sprung from a com- 
mon ancestry and preserving common features in language and 
in religion. The Greeks had more genius ; the Eomans more 
stability. In arts and letters the Eomans were followers of 
the Greeks. They had less delicacy of perception and native 
refinement of manner; but they had more sobriety of charac- 
ter, more discipline, and more endurance. In their discipline 
lay the secret of their supremacy in arms, and of their ability 
to give law to the world. The Eoman was grave and virile. 
The versatility of the Greek was accompanied by levity. The 
Eoman, strong in the sense of right and of justice, had a true 
political instinct and a capacity for building up a political 
system on a firm basis. The noblest product of the Latin 
mind is the Eoman law, which is the foundation of modern 
continental codes, and has exerted a powerful influence di- 
rectly upon the law of England, and more remotely upon the 
jurisprudence of the United States. But while the Eomans 
were lovers of justice and of order, their history is stained 
here and there with acts of unexampled atrocity. In private 



116 ROME 

life, when the rigor of self-control gave way, they sank into 
extremes of vulgar sensuality. If, compared with the Greeks; 
they stood morally at a greater height, they might fall to a 
lower depth. 

Roman Religion. — The difference between the Greek and 
Eoman mind was manifest in the sphere of religion. While 
Jupiter, like Zeus, was the old Aryan god of the shining sky, 
yet the Greek conception differed from the Eoman. When 
the Romans came into intercourse with the Greeks they iden- 
tified the Greek divinities with their Cwn, and linked the tales 
of Greek mythology to their own deities. They had no oracles 
of their own, but in the e^lier times, in emergencies, resorted 
to the oracles of Greece. | The myths of Roman origin were 
heroic, not religious. They related to the deeds of valiant 
men. Their deities were less endowed with distinct personal 
characteristics. Worship was treated as something due to the 
gods, to be discharged like any other debt. The word reliyion 
had the same root as the word obh'(jatio)i. The Romans were 
watchful to omit nothing required to avert the disi)leasure of 
their deities. If they brought a foreign people to Rome, they 
invited its gods to make their abode tliere. I 

Origin of the Romans. — The Romans attributed their origin 
to Aeneas, who fled with a band of fugitives from the flames 
of Troy, and whose son Ascanius settled in Alba Longa, in 
Latiuni. Other cities ascribed their origin to this mythical 
founder. Rome was in truth a settlement of Latin farmers 
and traders on the seven hills near tlie border of Latium, on 
the Tiber. Of the three clans which united to form Rome — 
the Ramnes, Titles, and Luceres — the first was Latin, the sec- 
ond Sabine, and the third was of an unknown origin. The 
city was at first a trading village for the exchange of the prod- 
ucts of the farming district in which it was placed. Situated 
at the head of navigation for small vessels, such an outpost 
would be useful to guard Latiuni against the Etrurians across 
the river. Even at the outset, Rome derived its strength from 
a combination of closely related tribes. 



\ 



PEEIOD I. — EOME UTOEE THE KIMS AND THE 
PATEIOIAITS 

(753-304 B.C.) 

CHAPTER XIX 

EOME UNDER THE KINGS (753-509 b.c.) 

Character of the Legends. — The kings under whose rule the 
Romans lived for a time were neither hereditary rulers, like 
the Greek kings, nor were they chosen from a single family. 
The stories told about them in later times are laden with im- 
probabilities — and even impossibilities — which prove them to 
be the fruit of the imagination. They are the tales which in 
the course of centuries were woven out of traditions, molded 
and recast from time to time, until they assumed the form in 
which they are recorded by the historian Livy, in the reign of 
Augustus. The Roman legends, including dates, such as are 
recorded in this chapter, are fabrications to fill up a void in 
regard to which there was no trustworthy information and to 
account for beliefs and customs the origin of which no one 
knew. Mingled in them are fragments of veritable history, 
and they are of some help in ascertaining the character of the 
Roman constitution in the prehistoric age. 

The Legendary Tales. — Romulus and Remus, so the legend 
runs, were sons of the god Mars, by Rhea Silvia, a priestess of 
Vesta, whose father, Xumitor, had been driven from his throne 
by his wicked brother, Amulius, who thereby made himself 
King of Alba Longa. The twins, by his command, were put 

117 



118 



ROME 




Bronze Wolf Statue 

(Rome) 



into a basket and thrown into the Tiber. The cradle w^as 
caught by the. roots of a fig tree; a she-w^olf came out and 

suckled them, and 

^- - ^ J/^^^^^^.»^t^^^r ^ "SI^""-^Tw^ Faustulus, a shep- 

.J^'%.s\--\~-.\'< . .' •-• ' -.' ? '=^^ herd, brought them 

up as his own chil- 
dren. E o m u 1 u s 
grew up and slew 
the usurper, Amu- 
lius. 

The two brothers 
founded a city on 
the banks of the 
Tiber, where they 
had been rescued 
(753 B.C.). In a 
quarrel the elder killed the younger, and called the city after 
himself, Roma. Romulus, to increase the number of the people, 
founded an asylum on the Capitoline Hill, wdiich gave wel- 
come to robbers and fugitives of all kinds. There was a lack 
of women; but, by a cunning trick, the Romans seized on a 
large number of Sabine women, who had been decoyed to 
Rome with their fathers and brothers to see the games. The 
angry Sabines invaded Rome. Tarpeia, the daughter of the 
Roman captain, left open for them a gate into the Capitoline 
citadel, and so they won the Capitol. In the war that fol- 
lowed, the Romans and Sabines agreed, on the intervention of 
the Sabine women, to live peaceably together as citizens of 
one town, under Romulus and the Sabine Tatius. After the 
death of Tatius, Romulus reigned alone, and framed laws for 
the two peoples. During a thunder-storm he was translated 
to the skies, and worshiped as the god Quirinus (716 b.c). 

After a year Numa Pompilius, a Sabine, w^as elected king 
(715-673 B.C.). He stood in close intercourse with the gods, 
was full of wisdom and of the spirit of peace. He framed 
the religious system, with its various offices and rites. The 



ROME UNDER THE KINGS 119 

gate of tlie arch of Janus, closed only in peace, was shut 
during his mikl reign. He died of old age, without illness 
or pain. 

The peaceful king was followed by the warlike king, Tullus 
Hostilius (673-664 b.c). AVar breaks out with Alba. The 
two armies face each other, and the contest is decided by the 
single combat of the three Horatii, champions of the liomans, 
and the three Curiatii, champions of Alba. One Koman, the 
victor and sole survivor, is led to Eome in triumph. Thus 
Alba became subject to Eome. Afterwards Alba was de- 
stroyed, but the Albans became Eoman citizens. 

The fourth king, Ancus Marcius (641-616 b.c), loved peace, 
but could not avoid Avar. He fought against four Latin towns, 
brought their inhabitants to Eome, and planted them on the 
Aventine hill. He fortified the hill Janiculum, on the right 
bank of the Tiber, and connected it by a wooden bridge with 
the town. 

The next king was by birth an Etruscan. His father is said 
to have been a Corinthian. Lucumo and his wife, Tanaquil^ 
emigrated to Eome. Lucumo took the name of Lucius Tarqui- 
nius, was stout, valiant, and wise, a counselor of Ancus, and 
chosen after him instead of one of the king's sons, whose guar- 
dian he was. 

Tarquinius Priscus (616-578 b.c.) waged successful wars 
with the Sabines, Latins, and Etruscans. The Etruscans 
owned him for their king, and from them came the crown 
of gold, the scepter, the ivory chair, the embroidered tunic, 
the purple toga, and twelve axes in as many bundles of rods. 
He made a reform of the laws. He built the temple of Jupi- 
ter, or the Capitol, laid out the Forum for a market place, made 
a great sewer to drain the lower valleys of the city, leveled a 
racecourse between the Aventine and Palatine hills, and intro- 
duced games like those of the Etruscans. 

Tarquinius was killed by the sons of Ancus ; and Servius 
Tullius (578-534 b.c), the son of Ocrisia, a slave woman, and 
of a god, was made king through the devices of Tanaquil. He 



120 ROME 

united the seven hills, and built the wall of Eome. He re- 
modeled the constitution by the census and the division of 
the centuries. The obligation to render military service was 
laid on the possessors of land, who were divided according to 
the amount of their property into five classes. The census 
Avas a complete land register. The military body, or Assembly 
of Hundreds, met on the Field of Mars {Campus Martins). 
Under this king Rome joined the Latin League. 

He was murdered l)y his flagitious son-in-law, Tarquinius 
Superbus (534-510 b.c.) — Tarquin the Proud. He ruled as a 
despot, surrounding himself with a bodyguard, and, upon 
false accusation, inflicting death on citizens whose property 
he coveted. By a treacherous scheme he got possession of 
the town of Gabii. He waged war against the Volscians, a 
powerful people on the south of Latium. He adorned Home 
with nuany buildings, and lived in pomp and extravagance, 
while the people were impoverished and helpless. The in- 
spired Sibyl of Cumae offered him, through a messengei', nine 
books of prophecies. The price required excited his scorn, 
whereiq)()n the Avoman avIio brought them destroyed three. 
This led Tarquin to pay the price Avhen she appeared the 
third time Avith the books that were left. They Avere carefully 
preserved to the end, that in times of danger the Avill of the 
gods might be learned. 

Another story told of the haughty king was that, Avhen he 
had grown old, and Avas frightened l)y dreams and omens, he 
sent his two sons to consult the oracle at Delphi. With tliem 
Avent his sister's son, Junius, Avho Avas called Lrutus on 
account of his supposed silliness, Avhich Avas really feigned 
to deceive the tyrant. The offering Avhich he brought to tlie 
Delphian god Avas a sim})le staff. His cousins, Avho laughed 
at him, did not know that it Avas stuffed Avith gold. The god, 
in ansAver to a question, said that he should reign at Rome 
Avho should first kiss his mother, lirutus diAuned the sense 
of the oracle, pretended to stumble, and kissed the mother 
earth. 



ROME UNDER THE KINGS 121 

The cruel outrage of Sextus Tarquinius, the king's son, of 
which Lucretia, the wife of their cousin, was the pure and 
innocent victim, caused the expulsion of the house of Tarquin, 
and the abolishing of regal government. Her father and hus- 
band, with Brutus and the noble Publius Valerius Poplicola, 
to whom she related the " deed of shame " wrought by Sextus, 
swore, at her request, to avenge her wrong. She herself 
plunged a dagger into her heart, and expired. Brutus roused 
the people and drove out the Tarquins. In place of the king 
two consuls, of whom Brutus was one, were appointed to rule 
for one year. When it was ascertained that his own sons 
had taken part in a conspiracy of the higher class to restore 
Tarquinius, the stern Eoman gave orders to the lictors to 
scourge them, and to cut off their heads with the ax. 

Now the senate and people decreed that the whole race of 
Tarquinius should be banished for ever. Tarquinius went 
among the Etruscans, and secured the aid of the people of 
Tarquinii, and of Veil. In a battle Aruns, the son of Tar- 
quinius, and Brutus, both mounted, ran upon one another, and 
were slain. Each army marched to its home. Tarquinius 
then obtained the help of Porsena, King of the Etruscans, 
with a strong army. They took Janiculum; but Horatius 
Codes, with two companions, posted himself at the entrance 
of the bridge, and kept the place, Horatius remaining until 
the bridge had been torn away behind him. He then, with 
his armor on, leaped into the river, and swam back to the 
shore. 

The town was hard pressed by the enemy and by famine. 
Mucins Scaevola went into Porsena's camp, resolved to kill 
him, but he slew another whom he mistook for the king. 
When threatened with death, he thrust his right hand into 
the fire, to show that he had no fear. Porsena, admiring his 
courage, gave him freedom ; and, on being informed that three 
hundred young Romans were sworn to undertake the same 
deed which Mucins had come to perform, Porsena made peace 
without requiring the restoration of Tarquinius. Tarquinius, 



122 EOME 

not despairing, persuaded the Tusculans. and other Latins to 
begin war against Rome. To meet the exigency the Romans 
appointed a dictator, Aulus Postumins. In a battle near Lake 
Regillus, when the Romans began to give way, the dictator 
invoked Castor and Pollux, vowing to dedicate a temple to 
them in case he was victorious. Two young men on white 
chargers appeared at the head of the Roman troops, and led 
them to victory. Tarquinius now gave up his effort, and went 
to Cumae to the tyrant Aristodemus, where he lived until his 
death. 

Truth in the Legends. — In the legends certain facts are 
embedded. Alba was at one time the head of the Latin con- 
federacy ; the Sabines invaded Latium, settled on some of the 
hills of Rome, and united with the Romans in forming one 
state. To this union is ascribed the tradition of the two kings 
Romulus and Tatius. It is thought that military kingship 
succeeded an earlier priestly royalty. It is probable that the 
Etruscans, who had made much progress in civilization, gained 
control in Latium. Civilization advanced under them and 
the people were divided into classes. The upper class were 
called Patricians, and the common people, who were free but 
without political rights, were known as Plebeians. Of this 
latter class some who were under the special protection of 
citizens, their patrons, were called Clients. 

Under the old constitution, ascribed in the legends to Romu- 
lus, the patricians under the name of Populus formed the mili- 
tary force and were divided into districts, or Curiae, each curia 
being composed of a number of families, or gentes. The assem- 
bly of the citizens was called the Comitia Curiata. The bur- 
gesses were all equal as to their legal rights. The Comitia chose 
the king. The Senate Avas a council of elders or " fathers," 
representative of the gentes. The name of the clan or gens 
was part of the proper Jiame of every citizen and was placed 
between the personal name (or praeiiomeii) and the designation 
of the special family Avithin the gens. Thus in the case of 
Caius Julias Caesar, '-Caius" — more correctly, Gains — was 



i 



ROME UNDER THE KINGS 



123 



Fasces 



the personal name, " Julius " was the designation of the gens, 
and " Caesar " of the family. 

Magistrates. — AYhen the kingship was abolished, two officers 
of the patrician class, styled Consuls, exercised regal power 
during their term of office. They were at- 
/ ^ tended by twelve Lictors, who carried the 

fasces — bundles of rods fastened around an 
ax — which symbolized the power of the mag- 
istrate to flog or behead offenders. The power 
to elect the consuls, to hear appeals in capital 
cases, and to accept or reject bills laid before 
it, was finally acquired by the Comitia. In 
times of peril a Dictator was selected by one 
of the consuls, with a Master of Horse to 
command the knights under him. These were 
originally simply the horsemen in the Roman 
army, but became eventually a distinct class or order. For 
the time the dictator had absolute authority. 

Religion. — The head of the household, the Paterfamilias, 
offered regular sacrifices for his family, but as regards the 
whole people, worship was under the direction of the priests 
and the Pontifex Maximus. The Pontiffs 
were not so much priests as guardians and 
interpreters of divine law. They had the 
control of the Calendar. The Augurs con- 
sulted the will of the gods as disclosed in 
omens. The Petiales performed the rites 
attending the declaration of war or the 
conclusion of peace. The Soothsayers 
learned divine will by examining the en- 
trails of slaughtered victims. The Fla-' 
mens were the priests in charge of the 
worship of particular divinities, while the 
Vestals were virgins who ministered in the temple of Yesta 
and kept the sacred fire burning. The Salii were priests con- 
nected of old with the worship of Mars, and having in charge 




PlOman Domestic Altar 



124 



ROME 



tlie twelve shields, one of which was believed to have dropped 
from the sky in the time of Numa. The chief gods worshiped 

were Jiqnter, the god of 
the sky ; his wife, Juno, 
the goddess of maternity; 
Minerva, the goddess of 
wisdom ; Apollo, the god 
of augury and the arts ; 
Diana, the goddess of the 
chase and archery; Mars, 
the god of war; and Mer- 
cury, the god of trade. 
The Lares and Penates 
were household divinities, 
guardians of the family. 
Of all the divinities Jupi- 
ter was " the best and most 



^ high." His principal tem- 

ple was on the Capitol. 
Thence he surveyed the 
city of which he was the 
powerful guardian. Con- 
suls Avhen they entered upon their office, generals at the end 
of a campaign, conquerors who enjoyed the honors of a tri- 
umph, offered to him solemn worship. All stood in awe of the 
deity who could hurl thunderbolts from above. 




Vestal 



CHAPTER XX 

ROME UNDER THE PATRICIANS (509-304 b.c.) 

Rivalry of Classes. — After the abolition of royalty there 
was a series of struggles between the |)atricians and the plebe- 
ians. The poorer plebeians suffered greatly, especially at the 
hands of their rich creditors. A threat made by the united 
plebeians that they would found a town three miles from Eome 
led to an agreement providing for the election of Tribunes of 
the People, who should have the right to veto any legal or 
administrative measure. The power of the tribunes gradually 
became controlling, and they used it (among other ways) to 
prevent unfairness in the conscription or military enrolment. 

The Plebeian Assembly. — About this time a new Assembly, 
the Comitia of Tribes, was instituted. This body chose the 
tribunes. Its rights were extended more and more, and in 
time it chose the two Aediles, assistants of the tribunes, who 
superintended the business of the markets. The consul 
Spurius Cassius (486 b.c.) framed a law to remove the restric- 
tions upon occupation of public land by plebeians. When he 
retired from office, he was put to death by the ruling class. 

War with the Aequians and the Volscians. — In the early part 
of the fifth century the league comprising the Eomans, the 
Latins, and the Hernicans became involved in a war with the 
Aequians and Volscians. Cains Marcius Coriolanus, a brave 
patrician, had incurred the anger of the plebeians and had 
been banished. He went to the Volscians and led a strong 
army against Eome. He withstood the efforts of several 
embassies to turn him from his purpose, but finally yielded 
to the entreaties ■ of Veturia, his mother, and Volumnia, his 

125 



126 KOME 

wife, exclaiming, " Oli ! my mother ! Eome thou hast saved, 
but thou hast lost thy soul" He died among the Volscians^ 
(491 B.C.). The tale, certainly in most of its parts, is fic- 
titious. 

The story of Cincinnatus in essential particulars is probably 
true. AVhen the Romans were hard pressed by the Aequians, 
the messenger of the Senate found him plowing in the held 
and asked him to become dictator. He accepted the post, by 
his prudence and vigor delivered the state, and on the sixteenth 
day laid down his office and went back to the farm. The time 
required for the task was doubtless much longer than the 
legend allows. 

The Decemvirs. — In 171 b.c. the Publilian Law was passed 
to establish fully the right of the plebeians alone to elect their 
tribunes. The plebeians also proposed the Terentilian Law 
(462 B.C.), to secure to them the same private rights as the 
patricians enjoyed. The demand was more and more heard 
for the safeguards afforded by definite statutes. Finally it 
was agreed that ten men, Decemvirs, should be chosen indis- 
criminately from both classes to frame a code and, in the 
meantime, to control the government (151 b.c). Many obsta- 
cles were put in the way of the plan by the conservative 
patricians. It is a plausible theory that one of their number, 
Appius Claudius, sided with the people and that the familiar 
story of Yirginius was a later invention to discredit him. 
According to this story Yirginius, a brave plebeian, gave a 
signal for a revolt of the people by plunging a dagger into 
the breast of his fair young ' daughter, to prevent her from 
falling into the clutches of Claudius. 

Political Equality. — The laws of the Twelve Tables lay at 
the basis of all Roman legislation. In 448 b.c. it was ordained 
that the enactments of the plebeian Assembly, which were 
drawn up by the decemvirs and engraved on tablets of brass, 
should be binding on the whole Roman people. In 445 b.c. 
marriage between plebeians and patricians was made lawful. 
In 444 B.C. the plebeian office of Military Tribune was estab- 



ROME UNDER THE PATRICIANS 127 

lished, and by way of off-set, the new patrician office of Censor 
was created. The duties of the censors included matters relat- 
ing to the census, the collection of taxes, and the supervision 
of public manners and morals. About the year 400 b.c. the 
plebeians elected several military tribunes, and in 388 b.c. the 
Licinian Laws secured to them the political equality for which 
they had so long contended. 

War with the Etruscans. — While this class struggle was 
going on, the Etruscans, weakened by defeats at the hands of 
the Greeks on the sea, were attacked by the Romans on land. 
Yeii was captured by the Eoman general Marcus Furius Camil- 
lus after a siege of ten years. 

Invasion of the Gauls. — The Eomans joined the Etruscans in 
attempting to resist the Gauls. . At the Allia, a brook eleven 
miles north of E-ome, the Koman army was defeated on the 
18tli of July, 390 b.c. The invaders under Brennus plundered 
and burned the city. A story of later date describes the 
rousing of the garrison in the Capitol by the cackling of the 
geese, which thus gave warning of the approach of the enemy. 
Another story represents Brennus as throwing his sword into 
the scale when the Romans complained of false weight in 
measuring the ransom, exclaiming as he did so, '•' Woe to the 
conquered ! " At that moment Camillus appeared and drove 
the Gauls out of the city. It is at all events certain that the 
Gauls retired from Eome and that the city was rebuilt without 
much delay. 

The Licinian Laws. — The long contest of parties was not 
unlike the party conflicts in English history. It trained the 
Romans in a habit of judicious compromise, of perseverance 
in asserting just claims and of yielding to just demands. The 
Licinian Laws mark an epoch in the controversy (367 b.c). 
They made provision for the relief of debtors, for limiting 
individual holdings of land, for the abolition of the military 
tribuneship and for the choice of at least one of the two 
consuls from the plebeians. A new patrician office, the Prae- 
torship, was founded, the holders of which were to govern in 



128 ROME 

the absence of the consuls. Before the close of the century, 
the plebeians became eligible to one after another of the- 
remaining important offices. The patrician order gradually 
became a social, not a legal, distinction. A new nobility in 
time arose, made up of both patricians and plebeians, any of 
whose ancestors had held the curule public office. These were 
the Optimates, plebeians being in the majority among them. 
A plebeian commonalty was thus left on a lower social plane, 
which eventually fell under the control of a new governing 
class. The Senate became the principal executive body. The 
condition of the people was improved and the constitution of 
the army was revised. The sort of army constituted was not 
to depend on property qualifications. Thereafter there were to 
be three lines in battle — the first two to carry a short spear 
{pilum) and the third the long lance (liasta). 




The Appian Way and Tomb of Cecilia Metella 



PEEIOD IL — TO THE UNIOIf OF ITALY 

(304-264 B.C.) 

CHAPTER XXI 

CONQUEST or THE LATINS AND ITALIANS (304-282 b.c.) 

Wars with the Gauls. — Tlie adjustment of tlie conflict of 
classes enabled the Homans to wage four wars in succession 
against the Gauls, who had permanently planted themselves in 
Northern Italy. The last of these ended in a signal victory 
for the Roman side (367-349). Wars with the Etruscan cities 
brought the whole of southern Etruria under Roman rule 
(358-351). 

First Samnite War. — During the latter part of the period 
of conflict with the Gauls, the Romans began a struggle with 
their strong and warlike neighbors, the Samnites, which lasted 
with intermissions for fifty years. In the first of the Sam- 
nite wars the Romans gained three notable victories. Valerius 
Corvus was the hero of the first victory, and the elder Decius 
Mus of the second. 

War with the Latins. — During this struggle the Latins dis- 
puted the title of Rome to the headship of the league. They 
wanted to escape from their political inferiority. War ensued, 
and the Romans under the plebeian consul, Decius Mus the 
younger, and the patrician consul, Titus Manlius, were finally 
victorious. The league was broken up, the cities became sub- 
ject to Rome, and colonies of Roman citizens were settled here 
and there between the conquered cities, in order to make the 
results of the conquest permanent. The Latin communities no 

129 



130 KOME 

longer had any power to act in common. Whatever privileges 
they possessed were held by them separately. The supremacy 
of Rome was completely secured. 

Second Samnite War. — Provoked by the encroachments of 
the Romans, the Samnites began a second war. At first mis- 
fortune befell the Roman arms. In the Caudine Pass, in 321, 
the Roman army was surrounded and was compelled to sur- 
render. At a later stage of the contest the Romans, under 
Papirius Cursor and Pabius ]Maxinius, gained a victory at 
Capua and built the Appian Way, a great military road from 
Rome to Capua, the remains of which may still be seen (312). 
The result of the war was favorable to the Romans, in conse- 
quence of a single victory at Vadimonian Lake in 310, and the 
capture of Bovianum, the capital of the Samnite league, in 305. 

Third Samnite War. — Peace was not of long continuance. 
The Samnites once more armed themselves for a desperate 
conflict, having on their side the Etruscans, the Umbrians, 
and the Gauls (300). The Italian peoples which had been 
at war with one another joined hands in this contest against 
the common enem}^ A decisive battle was fought at Sentinum, 
where Decius Mus the younger, following his father's example, 
devoted himself to death. It resulted in the defeat of the 
Samnites and of their allies (295). Rome was delivered from 
the danger of further attacks from the Gauls. Soon after, the 
Samnite general, Pontius, fell into the hands of the Romans. 
The Samnites kept up the contest for several years, but in 
290 they found that they could hold out no longer. Although 
vanquished, they were permitted to become allies. The Romans 
secured themselves by fortresses and by colonies, the most 
important of which was that of Yenusia, at the boundary of 
Samnium, Apulia, and Lucania, where they placed twenty 
thousand colonists. 



CHAPTER XXII 

WAR WITH PYRRHUS AND UNION OF ITALY (282-264 b.c.) 

Tarentum and Pyrrhus. — In the war against the Samnite 
coalition the Lucanians had rendered decisive support to 
Rome. Tlie Romans accordingly gave up to the Lucanians 
the non-Dorian Greek cities east of the Tarentine Gulf. 
Tarentum, a rich and prosperous Dorian city, viewed this step 
Avith suspicion. The Lucanians soon became embroiled with 
the Romans, and in the contest which followed the Romans 
were victorious ; and having already made themselves masters 
of central Italy, there were left for them to conquer only the 
Greek cities on the south. Ten Roman ships came into the 
harbor of Tarentum while the Tarentines were listening to a 
play in the theater. Under a sadden impulse of wrath, a mob 
attacked them and destroyed five. A strong war party was 
formed, which made an alliance with Pyrrhus, the Greek king 
of Epirus, who came over with a large army and joined his 
forces to the Tarentines. Pyrrhus was a relative of Alexander 
the Great. He was a man of fascinating person and address 
and a brilliant and famous soldier. He was adventurous, 
however, and he lacked the coolness and prudence requisite to 
carry out his great project of building up an Hellenic empire 
in the western Mediterranean and even to subdue the great 
Phoenician city of Carthage and its dominions. 

Events of the War. — The Romans refused to treat with him 
and put forth every effort to meet the threatened peril. At 
Heraclea (280 b.c.) the Roman cohort and the Macedonian 
phalanx met for the first time. It was a stniggle between the 

131 



132 ROME 

Greek and the Eomaii for the ascendency. The confusion caused 
by the elephants of Pyrrhus turned the tide in his favor ; but- 
after the battle he is said to have exclaimed : "A few more such 
victories and I am undone." His suggestions of peace were 
spurned through the influence of the aged Appius Claudius, 
who begged the Komans to make no peace as long as there was 
an enemy in Italy. Pyrrhus gained a bloody victory at Ascu- 
lum (279), and after two years' absence in Sicily he again faced 
the Komans at Beneventum. In this great battle he was com- 
pletely vanquished and was compelled to return to Epirus. 
After his death in 272, Tarentum surrendered to the Romans 
(in 266). The sway of Rome was established over the whole 
peninsula. 

Citizenship. — In order to understand Roman history, it is 
necessary to have a clear idea of the Roman system in respect 
to citizenship. All burgesses of Rome enjoyed the same rights. 
These were both public and private. The private rights of a 
Roman citizen were (1) the power of legal marriage with the 
families of all other citizens ; (2) the power of making legal 
purchases and sales, and of holding property ; and (3) the right 
to bequeath and inherit property. The public rights were^ 
(1) the power of voting wherever a citizen was permitted to 
vote ; (2) the power of being elected to all offices. | 

Conquered Towns. — "The Roman dominion in Italy was a 
dominion of a city over cities." With regard to conquered 
towns there were (1) Municipal cities (^niunicipia), the inhabit- -■ 
ants of which, when they visited Rome, could exercise all the 
rights of citizens. (2) Municipal cities which haxl the private, 
but not the public, rights of citizenship. Some of them chose 
their own municipal officers, and some did not. (3) Latin 
Colonies, as they were called. Lands ceded by conquered 
places were divided among poor Roman citizens, who consti- m 
tuted the ruling class in the communities to which they were ■ 
transplanted. In the Latin colonies the citizens had given up 
their public rights as citizens. (4) Towns of a lower class, 
called Praefectures. In these the principal magistrate was the 



WAR WITH PYRRHUS AND UNION OF ITALY 133 

Prefect, who was appointed by the Praetor {Praetor Urhanus) 
at Rome. 

The Allies (Socii). — These were a more favored class of 
cities. They had their relation to Eome defined by treaty. 
Generally they appointed their own magistrates, but Avere 
bound, as were all subject cities, to furnish auxiliary troops 
for Eome. 

The Latin Franchise. — This was the privilege which was 
first given to the cities of Latium, and then to inhabitants of 
other places. It was the power, on complying with certain 
conditions, of gaining full citizenship, and thus of taking part 
in elections at Eome. 

Roman Colonies. — The Eoman colony (which is not to be 
confounded with the Latin colony referred to above) was a 
small body of Eoman citizens transplanted, with their families, 
to a spot selected by the government. They formed a military 
station. To them lands taken from the native inhabitants 
were given. They constituted the ruling clfiss in the com- 
munity where they were established. Their government was 
modeled after the government at Eome. They retained their 
rights as Eoman burgesses, which they could exercise when- 
ever they were in that city. By means of these colonies, 
planted in places wisely chosen, Italy was kept in subjection. 
The colonies were connected together by roads. The Appian 
Way, from Eome to Capua, was built in square stones, laid on 
a platform of sand and mortar. In later times the Eoman 
Empire was traversed in all directions by similar roads. 



PEEIOD III — THE PUNIO WAKS 

TO THE CONQUEST OF CARTHAGE AND OF THE GREEK 

STATES 

(264-146 B.C.) 

CHAPTER XXm 

THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WARS (264-202 b.c.) 

The First Punic War. — Having accomplished the union of 
Italy, Rome turned her attention to the great commercial state 
of Carthage, her rival power in the west, which was advancing 
steadily to the control of all that portion of the Mediterranean. 
Sicily, from its situation between the two states, could hardly 
fail to furnish the occasion of a conflict between them. The 
Mamertines, a set of Campanian pirates, had captured Messana. 
They were attacked by Hiero II., King of Syracuse. A part of 
them besought help of the Romans, and a part applied to the 
Carthaginians. The Romans granted the request, crossed the 
channel in ships furnished by their southern Italian allies, and 
drove the Carthaginian garrison from Messana. The Cartha- 
ginians declared war (264). Hiero Avas gained over to the 
side of the Romans, and after a blood}^ conflict they captured 
Agrigentum. 

The Romans had begun as early as 311 to create a fleet, but 
they were still novices on the sea, where the Carthaginians were 
supreme. With characteristic energy, however, they set about 
strengthening their naval forces, and, though at first defeated, 
they Avon a great naA^al victory at Mylae in 200. An invasion 
of Africa Avas then determined upon. At Ecnomus the Cartlia- 

134 



THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WARS 



135 




A EoMAN "Wakship 



giniaii fleet was vaDquished by the Roman vessels under the 
command of the consul, M. Atilius Regulus. After landing at 
Clypea, the Romans ravaged the adjacent district, but one of 
the consuls, Manlius, was unwisely recalled by the Senate, and 
with a large part 
of the troops re- 
turned to Rome, 
leaving Regulus 
in possession, 
with fifteen thou- 
sand men. At Tu- 
nis, in 255, he was 
defeated and cap- 
tured. The story 
of his embassy to 
Rome with the 
Carthaginian offer of peace, of his advising the Senate not to 
accept it, of his voluntary return according to promise, and 
of his cruel death at the hands of his captors, is probably an 
invention of a later time. 

Hasdrubal, the Carthaginian general, was defeated at Panor- 
mus (251), but, two years later, at Drepanum the Romans were 
vanquished on sea and on land. Hamilcar Barcas maintained 
his position in the south of Sicily and gained temporary suc- 
cesses for the Carthaginian arms on the water; but in 241 
Hanno, in command of the Carthaginian fleet, was overcome 
by C. Lutatius Catalus off the Aegates Islands. The Cartha- 
ginians, whose naval supremacy was once more lost, were 
forced to conclude peace. They gave up all claim to Sicily 
and the neighboring snjall islands. They were to pay an 
indemnity equal to four million dollars in ten years. The 
western part of Sicily became- the first Roman province. 

Conquest of Cisalpine Gaul. — While the Carthaginians were 
engaged in putting down a revolt of their mercenary troops, 
the Romans extorted from them a cession of the island of 
Sardinia. By the conquest of the Illyrian pirates, Roman 



136 ROME 

sway in the Adriatic was secured. Then Eome was threat- 
ened by the advance of the Cisalpine Gauls, Avho called in the 
help of the Transalpine Gauls, and entered Etruria with sev- 
enty thousand men. At Telamon the invaders were routed 
with great loss (255), and the Konians, marching northward, 
subdued the Insubrians, the most powerful of the Gallic 
tribes. Their capital, Mediolanum (Milan), became subject to 
the Roman rule. Later, Cisalxjine Gaul became a Roman 
province. 

Carthaginians in Spain. — Carthage, under Hamilcar and his 
three sons, was, in the meantime, ))uilding up a flourishing 
dominion on the south and east coasts of Spain. The Ro- 
mans compelled Hasdrubal, the son-in-law of Hamilcar, to 
declare in a treaty that the Ebro should be the limit of 
Carthaginian conquests (22G). Rome also made a protective 
alliance with Saguntum, a rich and powerful trading city on 
the south of that river. Hasdrubal was murdered in 221 ; 
and the army chose as their general the son of Hamilcar 
Barcas, Hannibal, who was then only twenty-eight years old. 
Laying hold of a pretext, he attacked Saguntum and captured 
it after a stout resistance which lasted for eight months (219). 
Rome thereupon declared war. 

The Second Punic War. — When the treaty of Catulus, which 
ended the first Punic War, was made (241), all patriots at 
Carthage felt that it was only a truce. They must have 
seen that Rome would never be satisfied with anything 
short of the abject submission of so detested and danger- 
ous a rival. There was a peace party, an oligarchy, at 
Carthage ; and it Avas their selfishness which ultimately 
brought ruin upon the state. But the party which saw that 
the only safety was in aggressive action, found a military 
leader in Hannibal, — a leader not surpassed, and perhaps not 
equaled, by any other general of ancient or modern times. 
He combined skill with daring, and had such command over 
men that under the heaviest reverses his influence was not 
broken. If he was cruel, it is doubtful whether he went be- 



THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WARS 



137 



yoncl the practices sanctioned by the international la\y of the 
time and by Eoman example. When a boy nine years old, 
at his father's reqnest, he had sworn upon the altar never to 
be the friend of the Eoman 
people. That father he saw 
fall in battle at his side. 
The oath he kept, for Eome 
never had a more unyielding 
or a more powerful enemy. 

Hannibal in Italy. — In the 
summer of 218, Hannibal 
crossed the Ebro, pushed into 
Gaul, and made his memora- 
ble march over the Alps, 
probably by the Avay now 
known as the Little St. Ber- 
nard Pass. Through ice and 
snow, amid perpetual con- 
flicts with the rough moun- 
taineers, his army of fifty 
thousand foot, twelve thou- 
sand horse, and thirty-seven elephants, made its terrible jour- 
ney into northern Italy. Half the troops, with all the draught 
animals and beasts of burden, perished on the way. At Tici- 
nus, however, the valiant Eoman consul, Cornelius Scipio, was 
defeated in a cavalry battle, and his colleague, Sempronius, 
was routed with great loss on the Trebia. The Cisalpine 
Gauls joined Hannibal, who flanked the Eomans by marching 
through the swampy district of the Arno, and completely 
defeated the consul, Elaminius, in the battle of Lake Trasu- 
menus (217). The Eoman army of thirty thousand men was 
slaughtered and made prisoners, and Flaminius himself w^as 
killed. 

Hannibal moved towards Eome. When wuthin a few days' 
march from the city, he turned eastward. His constant aim 
was to drive the allies of Eome into revolt. In this effort he 




^(t2JIe6) 



138 KOMK 

signally failed of success. The undaunted Eomans appointed 
Quintus Fabius Maximus dictator. His x^olicy was to follow 
and watch his enemy, inflicting what injuries he could, but 
avoiding a pitched battle. This wise and effective policy 
gained for him the title of the Cunctator (Delayer), and he 
was therefore recalled at the instance of the impatient 
Roman populace. The consulship was then given to Paulus 
and Varro. The latter precipitated a battle at Cannae (216), 
where the E-omans suffered the most terrible defeat they had 
ever experienced. At the lowest computation they lost forty 
thousand foot and three thousand horse, with the consul 
Paulus and eighty men of senatorial rank. lUit the Senate 
did not lose heart. They mustered out all who could bear 
arms, including boys and even slaves. They put into their 
hands weapons from the temples, the spoils of former victo- 
ries. Hannibal, however, did not immediately attack Rome. 
Had he done so, what might have been the course of European 
history ? Even the Roman schooll)oys in later days discussed 
the question whether he did not make a mistake in turning 
aside to capture ( -apua, the second city in Italy. There he went 
into winter quarters, and his army was in a measure enervated 
by pleasure and vice. The Carthaginians made x)owerful 
alliances. Philip of Macedon promised to send a force into 
Italy (215 b.c). Syracuse revolted, and Carthaginian troops 
were sent over to Sicily. But fortune turned in favor of the 
Romans. At Nola, Hannibal was defeated by Marcellus (215), 
who crossed into Sicily, and after a siege of three years cap- 
tured Syracuse, which had been aided in its defense by the 
philosopher Archimedes. Capua surrendered to Rome, Han- 
nibal's allies forsook him, and his only reliance was on his 
brother in Spain, where the Roman cause was successfully 
maintained for a long time by the two l)rothers Publius and 
Cnaeus Sci})io. I)ut they were finally defeated and slain (212). 
Scipio : Zama. — The failure of Hannibal's great crusade 
against Rome was owing to a combination of causes. One 
was the miserablv factious condition of Carthage itself, and 



THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WARS 



139 




Scipio {Naples) 



the denial of adequate lielp and of confidence to its great gen- 
eral. Another cause was the impossibility of shattering the 
Eoman alliances in Italy. A third cause has been shown to 
be the fact that the command of 
the sea was to so great an extent 
in the hands of the Eomans. He 
could not keep open communica- 
tions by water with Spain, his 
most Valuable base of supplies. 
The same cause prevented Philip 
of Macedon from transporting 
troops to Italy. Publius Corne- 
lius Scipio, son of one and nephew 
of the other Scipio named above, 
a young man twenty-five years 
old, and a popular favorite, was 
given the command, and gained 
important successes ; but he could 
not keep Hasdrubal from going to his brother's assistance 
in Italy. The Romans, however, were able to prevent a junc- 
tion of his force with that of Hannibal; and Hasdrubal was 
vanquished and slain by them in the 
battle of Sena Gallica, near the little 
river Metaurus (207). Scipio expelled 
the Carthaginians from Spain, and, 
having returned to Kome, was made 
consul (205). His plan was to in- 
vade Africa. He landed on the coast, 
and was joined by Masinissa, the King 
of Numidia, who had been driven from 
his throne by Syphax, the ally of Car- 
thage. The defeat of the Carthagin- 
ians, and the danger of Carthage itself, 
led to the recall of Hannibal, who was defeated, in 202, by 
Scipio in the decisive battle of Zama. Carthage made peace, 
giving up all her Spanish possessions and islands in the Medi- 




Ballista 
(A Military Engine) 



140 



ROME 



terranean, handing over the kingdom of Syphax to Masinissa, 
and agreeing to pay a yearly tribute equal to two hundred and 
fifty thousand dollars for fifty years, to destroy all her ships 
of war but ten, and to make no war without the consent of the 
Romans (201). Scipio Africanus, as he was termed, came back 
in triumph to Eome. The complete subjugation of Upper Italy 
followed (200-101). 

Sicily and Spain. — The prospect of any successful resist- 
ance to Roman rule in the west was now at an end. The 
entire island of Sicily was incorporated in the Roman prov- 
ince. In Spain two provinces were constituted, but military 
contests of long continuance were required finally to quell 
the spirit of revolt among the native tribes. The Roman 
legionaries engaged in these struggles frequently married 
Spanish wives and remained in the country. The capture 
of Numantia in 133 b.c. put an end to the last possible in- 
surrection against Roman authority. 




Tkiumpu of a General 



CHAPTER XXIV 

CONQUEST OF MACEDONIA; THE THIRD PUNIC WAR; THE 
DESTRUCTION OF CORINTH (202-146 b.c.) 

Philip III.; Antiochus III. — The Eomans^ now dominant in 
the west, tnrned their attention to the affairs of the east, where 
they had formed connections, principally commercial, with dif- 
ferent states. Their policy was to protect Greek communities, 
and to prevent the growth of any kingdom that might bring 
danger to themselves. They engaged in a war with Philip III. 
of Macedonia, who had made an alliance with Hannibal, and 
whose ambitious schemes occasioned anxiety. In 197 Philip 
was defeated at Cynoscephalae in Epirus by the Roman army 
under T. Quintius Elamininus. The Greek cities were declared 
independent ; but when they found that their freedom was more 
nominal than real, the Aetolians took up arms and obtained 
the support of the king of Syria, Antiochus III. This prince, 
with whom Hannibal as a fugitive had taken refuge, was not 
wise enough to follow the advice of the great Carthaginian as 
to the conduct of the war. He was accordingly vanquished 
at Magnesia by L. Cornelius Scipio and Scipio Africanus. He 
was forced to give up all his Asiatic possessions as far as the 
Taurus Mountains. Seven years afterwards (183) Hannibal, 
who had taken refuge at the court of Prusias, king of 
Bithynia, finding that he was to be betrayed, took poison, 
and died. 

Perseus. — At Pydna (168 b.c.) the Romans defeated Per- 
seus, who had renewed the war begun by his father Philip. 
This victory marked an epoch in the progress of the Roman 
power in the east. Perseus himself, who had sat on the 

141 




THE ROMAN EMPIRE 

SCALE OF MILES 




10 '' Long-itude East 




4 POATESENGH'S I 



144 



ROME 



throne of Alexander, was led in triumpli through the Roman 
streets. The cantons of Cxreece were made subject to Kome. 
One thousand Achaeans of distinction, among them the his- 
torian Polybius, were carried to Italy and kept there for many 
years. The imperious spirit of Rome, ^ and the deference 
accorded to her, is illustrated in the interview of C. Popilius 
Laenas, who delivered to Antiochus TV. of Syria a letter of 
the Senate, directing him to retire before Alexandria. When 
that monarch replied that he would confer with his counselors 
on the matter, the haughty Roman drew a circle round him on 
the ground, and bade him decide before he shoidd cross that 
line. Antiochus said he would do as the Senate ordered. 

The Third Punic War. — The Carthaginians took up arms 
against Masinissa, who served Rome as his suzerain. This 
act the Romans construed as a breach of treaty. They were 
still anxious lest the old enemy should recover strength. 
The stern old senator, M. Porcius Cato, had for a long while 

contended that Carthage 

should be destroyed. War 

,,.pL.-u^ ,i|^"-^^^ /^^^^^ ^^ '^^ accordingly declared : 

and although the Romans 
were at hrst unable to re- 
sist the patriotic frenzy 
of the devoted Cartha- 
KuMAN Helmets giuiaus, they at length 

captured the city and de- 
stroyed it (146). The defenders fought from street to street 
and house to house. Only a tenth of them were left alive, and 
these were sold into slavery. The victorious P. Scipio Aemili- 
anus would have spared the city, but the Senate was inexor- 
able. The territory of Carthage became the Roman province 
of Africa. 

Destruction of Corinth. — The atrocious crime of the destruc- 
tion of Carthage was more than matched by the contempo- 
raneous destruction of Corinth. Greece, as of old, was torn 
by the conflict of factions. Macedonia had become a Roman 




DESTRUCTION OF CORINTH 145 

province in 146, but an anti-E-oman party grew in strength, 
and helped to bring on a war with the Achaean League, 
whose growth and spirit were watched by the Senate with 
suspicion. After a victory at Leucopetra, the consul L. Mum- 
mius occupied Corinth. Men were put to the sword, women 
and children were sold at auction, the treasures of art were 
carried off to E-ome, and the city was consigned to the flames. 
All the native confederacies were broken u^^, and, after the 
usual fashion, the cities were as far as possible disconnected 
from one another. At a later date Greece became a Eoman 
province under the name of Achaia. 

Literature and Philosophy. — The intercourse of the Eomans 
with the Greeks opened to the former a new world of art, 
literature, and philosophy. Eoman poets began to write in 
imitation of Greek models. Such were Plautus (who died 
in 184), and the less original, but more refined Terence (185- 
159), who had been the slave of a senator. Ennius (239-169), 
a Calabrian Greek, wrote epics, and also tragedies and come- 
dies. Him the later Eomans regarded as the father of their 
literature. The beginnings of historical writing — which go 
beyond mere chronicles and family histories — appear, as in 
the lost work on Eoman history by M. Porcius Cato (Cato the 
Censor, 284-149). The great historian of this period, how- 
ever, was the Greek Polybius. The introduction of the Greek 
philosophy was opposed by such austere conservatives as Cato. 
The Stoic teaching was, however, adapted to the Eoman mind, 
and the Platonic philosophy as well as the Epicurean found 
many adherents. 

The State of Morals. — The conquest of the East brought an 
amazing increase of wealth. The optimates left their small 
dwellings for stately palaces, and built country villas sur- 
rounded by extensive grounds and beautiful gardens. The 
women indulged in lavish display, and plunged into gaieties 
inconsistent with household virtues. Slaves multiplied, and 
the race of farmers dwindled. The seeds of demoralization 
and decay were planted. 



146 



ROME 



Numantian War. — Such being the condition of things at 
home, it often happened that the oppression of the colonies 
provoked resistance. Many of the peoples of Spain carried on 
a vigorous and prolonged contest with the Romans, in which 
many marked successes w^ere gained by the patriots. It was 
in 133 that Scipio Africanus Aemilianus captured the impor- 
tant city of Xumantia, which brought the war to an end. 

Pergamon. — In the East the Romans found greater subserv- 
ience. Attains III., King of Pergamon, an ally of Rome, left 
his kingdom and treasures, by will, to the Roman people. 
They detached Phrygia Major and gave it to Mithridates lY., 
King of Pontus, who had helped them to subdue the feeble 
opposition of the disai^pointed heir of Attains. 




Roman Lakdeb 
{Fresco at Uerculaiieum) 



PEKIOD lY. — THE EEA OF EEYOLUTION AND OP THE 
CIVIL WAKS 

(146-31 B.C.) 

CHAPTER XXV 

THE GRACCHI; THE FIRST MITHRIDATIC WAR; MARIUS 
AND SULLA (146-78 b.c.) 

Condition of Rome. — The Licinian Laws (p. 127) had pro- 
vided for a system of internal economy designed to improve 
the condition of the poor and to limit the power of the rich. 
Had they been carried out, the situation would not have been 
what it actually was. Their adoption was followed by an era 
of internal strife. The power of the Senate was more and 
more exalted. The chief officers were drawn from a small 
circle of rich families, and the gulf between the poor and the 
rich was constantly widening. Slaves furnished labor at the 
cost of bare subsistence, and it was hard for a poor man to 
earn a living. 

Tiberius Gracchus. — Tiberius Gracchus, the son of Cornelia, 
vfho was the daughter of the great Scipio Africanus, proposed 
to limit the amount of public land which any one man could 
hold and to divide a portion of it among poor citizens. His 
plan was adopted through the passage of the Agrarian Laws, 
in spite of the bitter opposition of the nobility (133). In order 
to gain his end he had taken several steps of doubtful consti- 
tutionality, and the optimates succeeded in stirring up the 
people so that an infuriated mob slew him and three hundred 
of his followers. 

147 



148 ROME 

Caius Gracchus. — The laws of Cams Gracchus, the brother 
of Tiberius, Avere of a more sweex^iiig character. They were 
aimed directly against the Senate, which stood in the way of 
the passage of laws for the benefit of the poorer citizens. He 
caused measures to be passed, and colonies to be sent out, by 
decrees of the people, without any action of that body. He 
renewed the agrarian law, and caused a law to be passed for 
selling corn for less than the cost to all citizens who should 
apply for it. He also caused it to be ordained that juries 
should be taken from the knights, the Equites, instead of the 
Senate. These were composed of rich men. The tendency of 
the law would be to make the equestrian order distinct, and 
thus to divide the aristocracy. The proposal (122), which 
was not passed, to extend the franchise to the Latins, and per- 
haps to the Italians, cost him his popularity, although the 
measure was just. The Senate gave its support to a rival 
tribune, M. Livius Drusus, who outbid Gracchus in the con- 
test for popular favor. In 121 Gracchus was not made tribune. 
In the disorder that followed he, with several hundred of his 
followers, was killed by the optimates, and before long most of 
his enactments were reversed. The law for the cheap sale of 
corn, the most unwise of his measures, continued. 

The Jugurthine War. — Jugurtha, the adopted son of the King 
of Numidia, wishing the kingdom for himself, killed one of 
the sons of the late king and made war upon the other. The 
surviving son, whose father had been an ally of Eome, apjjealed 
to the Romans for help. The commission sent out by the Sen- 
ate was bribed by Jugurtha, who was not summoned to Home 
until he had taken the city of Cirta and had put his rival to 
death. War was declared against him, but he succeeded in 
bribing the generals, so that little was effected. Quintus Me- 
tellus defeated Jugurtha in 108, but the people insisted on 
giving the chief command to Caius Marius (107), the son of a 
peasant, wild and rough in his manners, but of extraordinary 
talents as a soldier. Jugurtha was overcome by Marius and 
was delivered into the hands of one of his generals, L. Corne- 



DEFEAT OF THE BARBAEIANS 149 

lius Sulla, by a prince with whom he had taken refuge. Ma- 
rius, who had now become the leader of the popular party, 
entered Eome in triumph, Jugurtha and his two sons marching 
in chains before the triumphal car. 

The Cimbri and Teutones. — The power of Marius was aug- 
mented by his victories over the Cimbri and the Teutones. 
These were hordes of barbarians who appeared in the Alpine 
regions, the Cimbri being either Celts, or, like the Teutones, 
Germans. The Cimbri crossed the Alps in 113 and defeated a 
Eoman consul. They turned westward towards the Rhine, 
traversed Gaul in different directions, defeating through a 
series of years the Eoman armies that were sent against them. 
These defeats the democratic leaders ascribed, not without 
reason, to the corrupt management of the aristocratic party. 
In 103 the Cimbri and the Teutones arranged for a combined 
attack on Italy. Marius was made consul ; and in order to 
meet this threatened invasion, which justly excited the great- 
est anxiety, he was chosen to this office five times in succession 
(104-100). He repulsed the attack of the barbarians on his 
camp, and before they could unite defeated them separately 
in two great battles, the first at Aquae Sextiae (Aix in Pro- 
vence) in 103, and the second at Vercellae, in Upper Italy, in 
101. These successes, which really saved Eome, made Marius 
for the time the idol of the popular party. 

The Army. — At about this time a great change took place in 
the constitution of the army. The occupation of a soldier had 
become a trade. Besides the levy of citizens, a recruiting sys- 
tem was established, which drew into the ranks the idle and 
lazy, and a system of reenforcements, by which cavalry and 
light-armed troops were taken from subject and vassal states. 
Thus there arose a military class, distinct, as it had not been 
of old, from the civil orders, and ready to act separately when 
its own interest or the ambition of favorite leaders might 
prompt. 

Saturninus. — Marius lacked the judgment and the firmness 
required by a statesman, especially in troublous times. When 



150 KOME 

Satiirniniis and Glaiicia brought forward a series of measures 
of a radical character iu behalf of the democratic cause, and 
the consul Metellus, who opposed them, was obliged to go into 
voluntary exile, Marius, growing ashamed of the factious and 
violent proceedings of the popular party, was partially won 
over to the support of the Senate. When C. Memmius, candi- 
date for consul, was killed with bludgeons by the mob of Satur- 
ninus and Glaucia, and there was fighting in the Forum and 
the streets, he helped to put down these reckless innovators 
(99). But his want of hearty cooperation with either party 
made him hated by both. Metellus was recalled from ban- 
ishment. Marius went to Asia and visited the court of 
Mithridates. 

The Murder of Drusus. — Nearly ten years of comparative 
quiet ensued. The long-continued complaints of the Italians 
found at last a voice in the measures of M. Livius Drnsus, a 
tribune, who, in 91, proposed that they should have the right 
of citizenship. Two other propositions, one referring to the 
relations of the equites and the Senate, and the other for a 
new division of lands, had been accepted by the people, but 
Avere by the Senate declared null. Before Drusus could bring 
forward the law respecting Italian citizenship, he was assassi- 
nated. Neither Senate nor people was favorable to this right- 
eous measure. 

The Italian or Social War (90-88 B.C.). — The murder of 
Drusus was the signal for an insurrection 'of the Italian com- 
munities. They organized for themselves a federal rejmblic. 
The peril occasioned by this great revolt reconciled for the 
moment the contending parties at Rome. In the north, where 
Marius and Sulla fought, the Romans were partially success- 
ful ; in the south the allies were at first superior ; but in 89, 
by means of Sulla's bold forays, they were worsted. But the 
revolt had threatened to subvert the power of Rome, and it 
was by policy, more than by arms, that it was subdued. The 
Romans promised full citizenship to those who had not taken 
part in the war, and to those who would at once cease to take 



MAKIUS AND SULLA 151 

part in it (90). Finally, when it was plain that Rome was too 
strong to be overcome, the conflict was ended by granting to 
the allies all that they had ever claimed (89). Eome had now 
made all Italy (south of Cisalpine Gaul) except the Samnites 
and Lucanians equal with herself. But Italy had been 
ravaged by desolating war; the number of small proprietors 
was more than ever diminished, and the army and the generals 
were becoming the predominant force in the affairs of the state. 

War with Mithridates. — Mithridates V., styled Mithridates 
the Great, King of Pontus, in the northeast of Asia Minor, was 
as ardent an enemy of the Eomans as Hannibal had been. 
With the help of his son-in-law, Tigranes, King of Armenia, 
he had subdued the neighboring kings in alliance with Eome. 
The Asiatic states, who were ruled by the Eomans, were impa- 
tient of the oppression under which they groaned. When 
checked by the Eomans, Mithridates had paused for a while, 
and then had resumed again his enterprise of conquest. The 
conflict with him was precipitated by the folly and arrogance 
of a Eoman envoy. In 88 the Grecian cities of Asia joined 
him; and, in obedience to his brutal order, all the Italians 
within their walls — not less than eighty thousand, but possi- 
bly almost double that number — were put to death in one 
day. The whole dominion of the Eomans in the East was 
in jeopardy. 

Marius and Sulla. — Sulla was elected consul in 88, and was 
on the point of departing for Asia. He was a soldier of 
marked talents, a representative of the aristocratic party, and 
was more cool and consistent in his public conduct than 
Marius. Marius desired the command against Mithridates 
for himself. P. Sulpicius, one of his adherents, brought for- 
ward a revolutionary law for incorporating the Italians and 
freed men among the thirty-five tribes. The populace, under 
the guidance of the leaders of the Marian faction, voted to 
take away the command from Sulla, and to give it to Marius. 
Sulla refused to submit, and marched his army to Eome. It 
was impossible to resist him; Sulpicius was killed in his 



152 ROME 

flight; Mariiis escaped from Italy, and, intending to go to 
Africa, was landed at Minturnae. To escape pursuit, he had 
to stand up to the chin in a marsh. He was put in prison, and 
a Gaulish slave was sent to kill him. But when he saw the 
flashiug eyes of the old general, and heard him cry, •' Fellow, 
darest thou kill Caius Marius ? " he dropped his sword and 
ran. Marius crossed to Africa. Messengers, who were sent 
to warn him to go away, found him sitting among the ruins 
of Carthage. 

The Marians in Rome. — Sulla restored the authority of the 
Senate. In his absence Cinna, the consul of the popular 
party, sought to revive the laws of Sulpicius by violent 
means (87). Having been driven out of the city, Cinna re- 
turned with the aged Marius and took vengeance on the lead- 
ers of the optimates. After five days of slaughter Marius and 
Cinna were made consuls, and Sulla was declared to be de- 
posed. In the same year Marius died with the curse of all 
parties resting upon him. Sulla, in the meantime, was labor- 
ing to secure the cause of his coimtry abroad. In 86 he 
captured Athens, and by defeating the general of Mithridates 
at Chaeronea, and by a second victory soon after, he forced 
that king to conclude peace upon terms most advantageous 
to Eome. 

Sulla was now free to return home. In 83 he landed at 
Brundisium, and was joined by Cnaeus Pompeius, with a troop 
of volunteers. Sulla issued a proclamation assuring the Ital- 
ians that their rights would not be impaired. Although the 
army of the consuls was larger than his own, and was reen- 
forced by the Marians, Sulla gained a signal victory and 
became supreme in Rome. He wreaked vengeance on his 
enemies by massacres more direful than Eome had ever 
witnessed. His cruelty appeared to spring from no heat of 
passion, but was cold and shameless. 

The Laws of Sulla. — In his character as dictator, a station 
to which, by his command, the people elected him, Sulla re- 
made the constitution, striking out the popular elements to a 



SULLA 



153 



great extent, and concentrating authority in the Senate. The 
tribunes were stripped of most of their power. The Senate 
alone coukl propose laws. The places in the juries were given 
back to the senators (p. 148). Besides these and other like 
changes the right of suffrage was bestowed on ten thousand 
emancipated slaves ; while Italians and others, who had been 
on the Marian side, were deprived of it. Having held his 
office about three years, he laid it down, and withdrew to his 
country estate, where he gave himself up to amusements and 
sensual pleasure. A part of his time — for he was not with- 
out a taste for literature — he devoted to the writing of his 
memoirs, which, however, have not come down to us. He 
died in 78, a year after his retirement. 




Roman Standards 



CHAPTER XXVI 



POMPEIUS AND THE EAST; TO THE DEATH OF CRASSUS 

(78-53 B.C.) 

War with Sertorius. — Xot many years after Sulla's death, 
his reforms were amiulled. This was largely through the 
agency of Cnaeus Pompeius, who had supported Sulla, but was 
not a uniform or consistent adherent of the aristocratic party. 
He did not belong to an old family, but had so distinguished 
himself that Sulla gave him a triumph. Later he rose to still 
higher distinction by his conduct of the war in Spain against 
Sertorius, a brave and able man of the Marian party, wdio w^as 
supported there for a long time by a union of Spaniards and 

Romans. Xot until jealousy 
arose among his officers, and 
Sertorius was assassinated, was 
the formidable rebellion put 
down (72). 

The Gladiatorial War. — Pom- 
peius had the opportunity still 
further to distinguish himself 
on his w^ay back from Spain. 
The gladiators in Italy — the men who were trained in schools 
for the fights of the amphitheater — rose in large numbers 
under a gallant leader, Spartacus, a Thracian slave. They were 
reinforced by a host of brigands and slaves, defeated the Roman 
generals, and threatened Rome itself. For two years they rav- 
aged Italy at their will. They were vanquished by Marcus 
Crassus in 71, in two battles, in the last of which Spartacus 
fell. The remnant of them, a body of five thousand men, wdio 
had nearly reached the Alps, were annihilated by Pompeius. 

154 




Gladiators 
{Mosaic in the 3Tadrid Library) 



POMPEIUS AND THE EAST 



155 



Pompeius ; Crassus ; Cicero. — Crassus was a man of great 
wealth and of much shrewdness. Pompeius was bland and 
dignified in his ways, a valiant, though sometimes over-cau- 
tious, general. These two men, in 70 b.c, became consuls. 
They had resolved to throw themselves for support on the 
middle class at Eome. Pompeius, sustained by his colleague, 
secured the abrogation of some of the essential changes made 

by Sulla. The trib- 

unes received back 
their powers, and 
the independence of 
the Assembly of the 
Tribes was restored. 
The absolute power 
of the Senate over 
the law courts was 
taken away. These 
measures were car- 
ried in spite of the 
resistance of that 
body. 

Pompeius was 
aided by the great ad- 
vocate, Marcus Tul- 
lius Cicero. He was 
born at Arpinum in 
106 B.C., of an eques- 
trian family. He had 
been a diligent stu- 
dent of law and politics, and also of the Greek philosophy, and 
aspired to distinction in civil life. He studied rhetoric under 
Molo, first at Rome and then at Rhodes, during a period of 
absence from Italy which continued about two years. On his 
return (in 77 b.c.) he resumed legal practice. Cicero was a 
man of extraordinary and various talents, and a patriot, sin- 
cerely attached to the republican constitution. His political 




CiCEKU 

{Capitoline Museum, Rome) 



156 



ROME 



sympathy was with the numerous middle class in Italy. He 
was equally averse to the extreme party in favor of the con- 
servative oligarchy and to the supporters of a purely demo- 
cratic ride. He was humane and sensitive, and much more a 
man of peace than his eminent contemporaries. His foibles, the 
chief of which was the love of praise, were on the surface ; and, 
if he lacked some of the robust qualities of the great Koman 
leaders of that day, he was likewise free from some of their sins. 
The captivating oratory of Cicero found a field for its exercise 
in the impeachment of Verres, whose rapacity, as Roman gov- 
ernor of Sicily, had fairly desolated that wealthy lU'ovince. 
Cicero sliowed such vigor in the prosecution that Verres was 
driven into exile. This event weakened the senatorial oli- 
garchy, and helped Tompeius in his contest with it. 

War with the Pirates. — In 65 b.c. Pompeius retired from 
office; but two years later he assumed command in the war 
against the pirates. These had taken possession of creeks and 

valleys in western Cilicia 
and Pamphylia, and had 
numerous fleets. Not con- 
fining their depredations 
to the sea, they plundered 
the coasts of Italy, and 
stopped the corn ships on 
which Eome depended for 
food. Pompeius under- 
took to exterminate this 
piratical community. P>y 
the Gabinian Law, he was 
clothed with more power than had ever been committed to an 
individual. He was to have absolute command over the Medi- 
terranean and its coasts for fifty miles inland. He used this 
unlimited authority for war purposes alone, and in three months 
completely accomplished the work assigned him. He captured 
three thousand vessels, and put to death ten thousand men. 
Twenty thousand captives he settled in the interior of Cilicia, 




Merchant Ship 



POMPEIUS AND THE EAST 157 

Pompeius in the East. — The success of Pompeius was the 
prelude to a wider extension of his power and his popularity. 
After the return of Sulla from the East, another Mithridatic 
War (83-81), the second in the series, had ended in the same 
terms of peace that had been agreed upon before (p. 152). In 
74 the contest began anew against Mithridates, and Tigranes 
of Armenia, his son-in-law. For a number of years Lucullus, 
the Eoman commander, was successful ; but finally Mithri- 
dates regained what he had lost, and kept up his aggressive 
course. In 66 B.C., on a motion that was supported by Cicero, 
in the speech for the Manilian Law, but opposed by the aris- 
tocratic party in the Senate, Pompeius was made commander 
in the East for an indefinite term. So extensive powers had. 
never before been committed to a Eoman. He drove Mithri- 
dates out of Pontus into Armenia. Tigranes laid his crown at 
the feet of the Eoman general, and was permitted to retain 
Armenia. Mithridates fled be- 
yond the Caucasus, and, in 63 
B.C., committed suicide. Pom- 
peius overthrew the Syrian king- 
dom of the Seleucide. He en- BAxxEKma eam 
tered Judea, captured Jerusalem 

from Aristobulus, the reigning prince, and placed his brother 
Hyrcanus on the throne, who became tributary to Eome. Pom- 
peius, with his officers, entered the sanctuary of the temple, 
and was surprised to find there neither image nor statue. He 
established in the Eoman territories in Asia the two provinces 
PoDtus and Syria, and reorganized the province of Cilicia. 
Several kingdoms he allowed to remain under Eoman protec- 
tion. After this unexampled exercise of power and responsi- 
bility as the disposer of kingdoms, he slowly returned to Italy, 
dismissed his army at Brundisium, and entered the capital as 
a private citizen, where, in 61 b.c, he enjoyed a magnificent 
triumph that lasted for two days. Such a triumph was the 
most coveted reward of a victorious general. It was a splen- 
did public celebration, including a procession through the 




158 ROME 

streets of Rome, in which the victor appeared in a chariot 
drawn by four horses, wearing a wreath of lanrel npon his 
brow. ,. 

Conspiracy of Catiline. — Tlie Roman state had in the mean- 
time been endangered by a combination of democrats and 
anarchists in tlie conspiracy of Catiline, an unprincipled poli- 
tician of patrician birth, and a bankrupt. His following was 
made up of the disaffected of every class. The plot was well 
contrived, but the vigilance of Cicero detected his plan. He 
delivered four celebrated speeches, two to the Senate and 
two to the people, by the first of which he compelled the 
conspirator to fly from Rome. The next year Catiline was 
killed in battle, and his followers were dispersed by the army 
of the Senate. Cicero was afterwards exiled, as the result of 
the return of party feeling, for departing from the letter 
of the law in the execution of some of the conspirators. 

Julius Caesar. — Another person strong enough to be the 
rival of Pompeius was now on the stage of action. This was 
Cains Julius Caesar, who proved himself to be, on the whole, 
the foremost man of the ancient Roman world. Caesar's talents 
were versatile, but in nothing was he weak or superficial. He 
was great as a general, a statesman, an orator, and an author. 
AVith as much power of personal command over men as Han- 
nibal had possessed, he was likewise an agreeable companion 
of men of letters and in general society. Everything he did 
he appeared to do with ease. He was of patrician birth, and 
by his family connections he was naturally designed as the 
leader of the popular Marian party. He was the nephew of 
Marius, and the son-in-law of Cinna. Sulla had spared his 
life, although he had courageously refused to obey the dicta- 
tor's command to put away his wife ; but he had been obliged 
to leave Rome. At the funeral of Julia, the widow of Marius, 
he had been bold enough to exhibit the bust of that hero, — 
an act that involved. risk, but pleased the multitude. He was 
suspected of being privy to Catiline's plot, but not on good 
grounds, although in the Senate he spoke against the execu- 



POMPEIUS AND THE EAST 



169 



tion of the conspirators. In 65 he was elected aedile, but his 
prof ase expenditures in providing games plunged him heavily 
in debt ; so that it 
was only by advances 
made to him by Crassus 
that he was able, after 
being praetor, to go to 
Spain (in 61), where, 
as propraetor, he first 
acquired military dis- 
tinction. Prior to his 
sojourn in Spain, by 
his bold political con- 
duct, in opposition to 
the Senate, and on the 
democratic side, he had 
made himself a favor- 
ite of the people. 

The First Triumvi- 
rate. — Pompeius was 
distrusted and feared 
by the Senate ; but, on 
seeing that he took 
no measures to seize 
on power at Kome, they proceeded to thwart his wishes, and 
denied the expected allotments of land to his troops. The 
circumstances led to the formation of the first Triumvirate, 
which was an informal alliance between Pompeius, Caesar, and 
Crassus, against the senatorial oligarchy, and for the protection 
and furtherance of their own interests. Caesar became consul 
in 59 B.C. He gave his daughter Julia in marriage to Pom- 
peius. Gaul, both Cisalpine and Transalpine (Gallia Narbo- 
nensis), was given to Caesar to govern for five years. Cato was 
sent off, ostensibly on public business, but really to get him 
out of the way. Cicero, who was midway between the two 
parties, was exiled on motion of the radical tribune Clodius. 




Caesar 
{Vatican Museum, Rome] 



160 ROME 

But the independent a,nd violent proceedings of this demagogue 
led Pompeius to cooperate more with the Senate. Cicero was 
recalled (57b.c.). A jealousy, fomented by the Senate, sprang 
up between Pompeius and Crassus. By Caesar's efforts, a 
better understanding was brought about between the triumvirs, 
and it was agreed that his own proconsulship should be pro- 
longed for a second term of five years. Pompeius received the 
S pains, and Crassus, who was avaricious, was made proconsul 
of Syria, and commander of the armies in the oriental prov- 
inces. In an expedition against the Parthians, in 53, he 
perished. 

Caesar in Gaul. — Caesar's Coynmentaries give an admirable 
narrative of his campaigns in Gaul. The Gauls were for the 
most part Celts. In Gaul proper there were three general 
divisions of people, the Belgae, the Galli, and the Aquitani. In 
Switzerland there were the Helvetii and Vindelici. Caesar's 
first victory was in conflict with the Helvetii. Ariovistus, a 
German chief, crossed the Ehine, but was driven back by 
Caesar, to whom the Gallic tribes applied for help. Caesar's 
Gallic allies feared his power, however, and they stirred up 
the Belgae, whom Caesar thereupon subdued. Twice he crossed 
the Rhine {^^ and 53 b.c), and twice he landed in Britain {p5 
and 54 b.c). In 52, he quelled a general insurrection of the 
Gauls, under the gallant Yercingetorix. The subjugation of 
Gaul, after eight years of warfare, placed a barrier in the way 
of the advance of the Germans. Caesar " laid the foundation 
for the Romanization of the West," and delayed for centuries 
the great inroads of the barbarian peoples. His fame to some 
extent eclipsed the glory which Pompeius had gained in the 
East. He had become the leader also of veteran legions who 
were devoted to his interests. 



CHAPTER XXVII 

POMPEIUS AND CAESAR: THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE 

The Civil War. — The rupture between Pompeius and Caesar 
brought on another civil war, and subverted the Roman repub- 
lic. They were virtually regents. The triumvirs had arranged 
with one another for the partition of power. The death of 
Crassus took away a link of connection which had united the 
two survivors. The death of Julia, the beautiful daughter of 
Caesar, in 54 b.c, had previously dissolved another tie. Pom- 
peius contrived to remain in Rome, and to govern Spain by 
legates. 

Each of the two rivals had his active and valiant partisans 
in the city. The spoils of Gaul were sent to be expended in 
the erection of costly buildings and in providing entertain- 
ments for the populace. To Pompeius, in turn, Rome owed 
the construction of the first stone theater, which was dedicated 
with unprecedented show and splendor. Bloody conflicts be- 
tween armed bands of adherents of the two leaders were of 
daily occurrence. Clodius, an adherent of Caesar and a reck- 
less partisan, was slain by Milo in a conflict on the Appian 
Way. The Senate and the republicans, of whom Cato was the 
chief, in order to curb the populace, and out of enmity to Caesar, 
allied themselves with Pompeius. It was determined to pre- 
vent him from standing as a candidate for the consulship un- 
less he should lay down his command and come to Rome. He 
offered to resign his military power if Pompeius would do the 
same. This was refused. Finally he was directed to give up 
his command in Gaul before the expiration of the time which 
had been set for the termination of it. This order, if carried 

161 



162 KOME 

into effect, Avould have reduced him to the rank of a private 
citizen, and have left him at the mercy of his enemies. The 
tribunes, including his devoted supporter, Marcus Antonius, in 
vain interposed the veto, and fled from the city. Caesar de- 
termined to disobey the order of the Senate. His legions — 
two had been withdrawn on the false pretext of needing them 
for the Parthian War — clung to him, with the exception of 
one able officer, T. Labienus. Caesar acted wdth great prompti- 
tude. He crossed the Eubicon, the boundary of the Gallic 
Cisalpine province, before Pompeius — Avho had declared that 
with a stamp of his foot he could call up armed men from the 
ground — had made adequate preparations to meet him. The 
strength of Pompeius was mainly in the East, the scene of his 
former glory ; and he was, perhaps, not unwilling to retire to 
that region, taking with him the throng of aristocratic leaders, 
who fled precipitately on learning of the approach of Caesar. 
Pompeius sailed from Brundisium to Epirus. Cicero, who had 
ardently desired a compromise between the rivals, was in an 
agony of doubt as to what course it was right and best for him 
to take, since he saw reason to dread the triumph of either 
side. Peluctantly he decided to cast in his lot with the Sen- 
ate and its newly gained champion. 

Pharsalus ; Thapsus ; Munda. — Caesar gained the advantage 
of securing the state treasury, v/hich Pompeius had unaccount- 
ably left behind him, and was able to establish his power in 
Italy. Before pursuing Pompeius he marched through Gaul 
into Spain (49 e.g.), conquered the Pompeian forces at Ilerda, 
and secured his hold upon that country. He then crossed the 
Adriatic to cope with his great enemy, who was slower in his 
movements and inferior in military skill. He encountered 
Pompeius, who could not manage his imprudent officers, on 
the plain of Pharsalus (48 b.c), where the senatorial army, 
although, both in infantry and cavalry, more than twice as 
large as his own, was completely overthrow^n. Pompeius 
sailed for Egypt; but, just as he was landing, he was treach- 
erously assassinated. His head was sent to Caesar, who wept 



POMPEIUS AKD CAESAR 



16B 



at the spectacle, and punished the murderers. Caesar gained 
friends everywhere by the exercise of a judicious clemency, 
which accorded with his natural disposition. 

He next went to Egypt. There he was met by Cleopatra, 
whose dazzling beauty captivated him. She reigned in con- 
junction with her younger brother, who, according to the 
Egyptian usage, was nominally her husband. The Egyptians 
were roused against Caesar, and, on one occasion, he saved his 
life by swimming ; but he finally defeated and destroyed the 
Egyptian army. At Zela, in Pontus, he met and vanquished 
Pharnaces, the revolted son of Mithridates, and sent the laconic 
message, "Veni, vidi, vici" (I came, I saw, I conquered). 
Early in 46 he landed in Africa, and at Thapsus annihilated 





Dekaeitjs of Caesak 



the republican forces in that region. The younger Cato, their 
commander, refusing to survive the death of the republic, took 
his own life. A most powerful combination was made against 
him in Spain, including some of his old officers and legionaries, 
and the two sons of Pompeius. But in a hard-fought battle 
at Munda (March, 45 b.c.) when Caesar was himself in great 
personal danger, he was, as usual, triumphant. 

Character of Caesar. — Marvelous as was the career of Caesar, 
the general, his merit as a civilian was even more remarkable. 
He saw that the world could no longer be governed by the 
Eoman rabble, and under the forms of the old constitution he 
made himself dictator for life and censor for three years. 
Under the title of imperator, from which emperor is derived, 
he revived in substance, but not in form, the old regal office. 



164 ROME 

He made the Senate an advisory body. He reorganized the 
army and the civil administration in the provinces. The ten- 
dency of his measures was to make Kome the capital rather 
than the mistress of the world-wide community which had 
been subjected to her authority. The revolution which he 
accomplished was achieved by military organization, and was 
a measure of personal self-defense on his part. When once 
he had raised himself to supreme power, he sought to rule 
according to wise and liberal ideas. His schemes were large, 
but before he could carry them out he was cut down. 

Assassination of Caesar. — Caesar was tired of staying in 
Eome, and was proposing to undertake an expedition against 
the Parthians. [N'either his clemency nor the necessity and 
the merits of the government sustained by him availed to 
shield him against the plots of enemies. The aristocratic 
party detested his policy. He was suspected of aiming at 
the title, as well as the power, of a king. A conspiracy made 
up of numerous senators who secretly hated him, of other 
individuals influenced by personal spite, and of republican 
visionaries like Cassius and Junius Brutus, Avho gloried in 
what they considered tyrannicide, assaulted him on the Ides 
of March (March 15, 44 b.c.) in the hall of Pompeius, whither 
he had come to a session of the Senate. He received twenty- 
three wounds, and, according to one account, exclaimed as 
he fell, " Et tu, Brute ! " (Thou, too, Brutus !) ; for Brutus was 
one who had been counted a special friend. Cicero had 
acquiesced in the new government, and eulogized Caesar and 
his administration. But even he expressed his satisfaction 
at the event which left the republic without a master. An 
amnesty to those who slew Caesar was advocated by him, and 
decreed by the Senate. 

The Second Triumvirate. — The Senate gave provinces to the 
leading conspirators; to Decimus Brutus, Cisalpine Gaul. 
But at Borne there was quickly a reaction of popular wrath 
against the enemies of Caesar, which was skillfully fomented 
by Marcus Antonius in the address which he made to the peo- 



THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE 



165 



pie over the dead body, pierced with so many wounds. The 
people voted to give Cisalpine Gaul to Antonius, and he set 
out to take it from Decimus Brutus by force of arms. Cicero 
delivered a famous series of harangues against Antonius, 
called the Philippics, in imitation of the orations of Demos- 
thenes. Antonius, being 
defeated, fled to Lepidus, 
the governor of Transal- 
pine Gaul. 

Octavius, the grand- 
nephew and adopted son 
of Caesar, a youth of 
eighteen, now became 
prominent, and at first 
was supported by the 
Senate in the hope of 
balancing the power of 
Antonius. But in Octo- 
ber, 43, Octavianus (as he 
was henceforward called), 
Antonius, and Lepidus to- 
gether formed a second 
triumvirate, which be- 
came legal, by the ratifi- 
cation of the people, for 
the period of five years. 
A proscription for the destruction of the enemies of the three 
contracting parties was a part of this alliance. A great number 
were put to death, among them Cicero — a sacrifice to the ven- 
geance of Antonius. War against the republicans was the 
necessary consequence. At Philippi in Thrace, in the year 42, 
Antonius and Octavianus defeated Brutus and Cassius, both 
of whom committed suicide. Porcia, the wife of Brutus, and 
the daughter of Cato, on hearing of her husband's death, put 
an end to her own life. Many other adherents of the republic 
followed the example of their leaders. The victors divided 




The Young Augustus 
{Vatican Museum, Borne) 



1G6 ROME 

the world between themselves, Antonius taking the East, and 
Octavianus the AVest. To the weak and avaricious Lepidus 
Africa was assigned, but he Avas soon deprived of his share 
by Octavianus. 

Civil War : Actium. — Antonius Avas enamored of Cleopatra, 
and, following her to Egypt, gave himself up to luxury and 
sensual gratification. Civil war between Octavianus and the 
followers of Antonius in Italy (40, 41 b.c.) was followed by 
the marriage of Octavia, the sister of Octavianus, to Antonius. 
But after a succession of disputes between the two regents, 
there was a final breach. Antonius (3o) went so far as to give 
Roman territories to the sons of Cleopatra, and to send to 
Octavia papers of divorce. The Senate, at the instigation of 
Octavianus, deprived his unworthy colleague 
of all his powers. War was declared against 
Cleopatra. East and West Avere arrayed in 
arms against one another. The conflict was 
determined by the naval victory of Octavianus 
at Actium (Sept. 2, 31 b.c). Before the battle 
Triumphal Crown ^^^^ decided, Cleopatra fled, and Avas followed 
by Antonius. When he approached Alexan- 
dria, Antonius, deceived by the false report that Cleopatra 
had destroyed herself, threw himself upon his SAvord and died. 
Cleopatra, finding herself unable to fascinate the conqueror, 
but believing that he meant that she should adorn his public 
triumph at Rome, poisoned herself (30). Egypt Avas made 
into a Roman province. The month Sextilis, on Avhich Octavi- 
anus returned to Rome, received in honor of him the name of 
August, from Augustus (the Venerated or Illustrious), the 
name given him in 27 b.c. by the Roman people and Senate. 
He celebrated three triumphs; and, for the third time since 
the city Avas founded, the temple of Janus Avas closed. 




PEEIOD v. — THE IMPERIAL MONAEOHY 

TO THE MIGRATIONS OF THE TEUTONIC TRIBES 

(375 A.D.) 

CHAPTER XXVIII 

THE REIGN OF AUGUSTUS 

Augustus as a Ruler. — Peace was welcomed after the long 
and bloody civil war. As Imperator, Augustus had unlimited 
command over the military forces. The Senate, composed to 
suit his views, was resolved into an advisory and judicial body. 
He concealed his power under a mild exterior. " The Senate 
was made u^) of his creatures ; the people were won by bread 
and games ; the army was fettered to him by means of booty 
and gifts." 

The Empire. — The Roman Empire now stretched from the 
Atlantic to the Euphrates, a distance of more than three thou- 
sand miles, and from the Danube and the shores of Britain to 
the cataracts of the Nile and the African desert. Its popula- 
tion was between eighty millions and one hundred and twenty 
millions. The language of the empire was diversified. Local 
dialects remained, but Latin was prevalent west of the Adri- 
atic, and G-reek was the language of commerce aud of polite 
intercourse in all places. 

Literature. — The Augustan Period was the golden age of 
Roman literature. Augustus himself was a patron of poets 
and men of letters. There were other patrons among the men 
of wealth, such as Maecenas, the friend of Horace. Of the 

167 



1G8 



ROME 



poets of the early part of the first century b.c, Lucretius and 
Catullus were the most famous. Vergil (70-19 b.c.) in the 
Aeneid produced a genuine Roman epic, and in the Bucolics 
and Georgics made himself immortal as a pastoral poet. In 
the Aeneid he follows in the x^ath of Homer, and is less 
original. Horace (65-8 b.c.) was influenced by Greek models, 




Ye 



Horace Yarius and Maecenas 

{From the painting by JaUiheri) 



but in his satires and epistles expresses the character of 
his own genius. His Odes rank among the best of all pro- 
ductions of their kind. Ovid (43 b.c.-a.d. 18) dealt with the 
mythical tales of the Greeks, and was much influenced by the 
Alexandrian poets. 

In the domain of history, Livy (59 b.c.-a.d. 17), Sallust, 
and Caesar are the most celebrated names. In the depart- 
ment of jurisprudence, the Romans were always eminently 



REIGN OF AUGUSTUS 169 

original. The writings of their great jurists were simple and 
severe, and free from the rhetorical traits which Etonian 
authors in other departments borrowed from the Greeks. 

THE INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY 

The Jews and their Dispersion. — There were three ancient 
peoples, each of which fulfilled an office of its own in history. 
The Greeks were the intellectual peox^le; the Eomans were 
founders in law and politics ; from the Hebrews the true 
religion was to spring. At the epoch of the birth of Jesus, 
the Hebrews, like the Greeks and Eomans, were scattered 
abroad, and mingled with all other nations. Wherever they 
went they carried their pure monotheism, and built their 
synagogues for instruction in the law and for common wor- 
ship. Probably the smallest place had at least one synagogue. 
In the region of Babylon, a multitude of Jews had remained 
after the captivity. Two out of the five sections of Alexandria 
were occupied by them. At Antioch, in Syria, the other great 
meeting place of peoples of diverse origin and religion, they 
were very numerous. In the cities of Asia Minor, of Greece 
and Macedonia, in Illyricum and in Eome, they were planted 
in large numbers. Jewish merchants went wherever there was 
room for profitable trade. Generally regarded with aversion 
on account of their religious exclusiveness, they nevertheless 
made so many proselytes that the Koman philosopher, Seneca, 
said of them, "The conquered have given laws to the con- 
querors." 

Prophecy had inspired the Jews with an abiding and fervent 
expectation of the ultimate conquest of heathenism, and preva- 
lence of their faith. If the hope of a temporal Messiah to free 
them from the Roman yoke, and to lead them to an external 
victory and dominion, burned in the hearts of most, there were 
some of a more spiritual mind and of deeper aspirations, who 
looked for one who should minister to the soul, and bring in a 
reign of holiness and peace. 



170 ROME 

Preparation for Christianity among the Heathen. — In the 

heathen workl there was not wanting a preparation for such a 
Deliverer. The union of all the nations in the Eoman Empire 
had lessened the mutual antipathy of peoples, melted down 
barriers of feeling as well as of intercourse, and weakened the 
pride of race. An indistinct sense of a common humanity had 
entered the breasts of men. Writers, like Cicero, talked of a 
great community, a single society of gods and men. The 
Stoic philosophy had made this idea familiar. Mankind, it 
was said, formed one city. Along with this conception pre- 
cepts were uttered in favor of forbearance and fraternal kind- 
ness between man and man. In religion there was a drift 
towards monotheism. The old mythological religion was de- 
caying, and traditional beliefs as to divine things were dis- 
solving. Many minds were yearning for something to fill the 
void, — for a anore substantial ground of rest and of hope. 
They longed for a goal on which their aspirations might cen- 
ter, and to which their exertions might tend. The burden of 
sin and of suffering that rested on the common mass excited 
at least a vague yearning for deliverance. The Roman Empire, 
with all its treasures and its glory, failed to satisfy the hearts 
of men. The dreams of philosophy could not be realized on 
the basis of ancient society, where the state was everytliing, 
and where no higher, more comprehensive, and more enduring 
kingdom could spring into being. 

Christ and the Apostles. — Eour years before the date assigned 
for the beginning of the Christian era, Jesus was born. Herod, 
a tyrannical king, servile in his attitude toward the Romans, 
and subject to them, was then rliling over the Jews in Pales- 
tine. But, when Jesus began his public ministry, the kingship 
had been abolished, and Judea was governed by the procura- 
tor, Pontius Pilate (a.d. 26). Jesus announced himself as the 
Messiah, the founder of a kingdom "not of this world," the 
members of which were to be brethren, having God for their 
Father. He taught in a tone of authority, yet with " a sweet 
reasonableness ; " and his wonderful teaching was accompanied 



REIGN OF AUGUSTUS 171 

witli marvelous works of power and mercy as "he went about 
doing good." He attached to himself twelve discix^les, among 
whom Peter and the two brothers James and John were the 
men of most mark. These had listened to the preaching of 
John, the prophet of the wilderness, by whom Jesus had been 
recognized as the Christ who was to come. 

The ministry of the Christ produced a widespread excite- 
ment, and a deep impression upon humble and truth-loving 
souls. But his rebuke of the ruling class, the Pharisees, for 
their formalism, pretended sanctity, self-seeking, and enslave- 
ment to tradition, excited in them rancorous enmity. His dis- 
appointment of the popular desire for a political Messiah 
chilled the enthusiasm of the multitude, many of whom had 
heard him gladly. After about three years he was betrayed 
by one of his followers, Judas Iscariot ; was accused of heter- 
odoxy and blasphemy before the Jewish Sanhedrim ; the con- 
sent of Pilate to his death was extorted by a charge of treason 
based on the title of '-king," which he had not refused; and 
he was crucified between two malefactors. Not many days 
elapsed before his disciples rallied from their despondency, 
and boldly and unitedly declared, before magistrates and peo- 
ple, that he had manifested himself to them in bodily form, in 
a series of interviews at definite places and times. They pro- 
claimed his continued though invisible reign, his perpetual 
presence with them, and his future advent in power. In his 
name, and on the ground of his death, they preached the for- 
giveness of sins to all who should believe in him, and enter on 
a life of Christian obedience. 

In the year 33 or 34, the death of Stephen, the first martyr, 
at the hands of a Jewish mob, for a time dispersed the church 
at Jerusalem, and was one step towards the admission of the 
Gentiles to the privileges of the new faith. But the chief 
agent in effecting this restUt, and in thus giving to Christian- 
ity its universal character and mission, was the Apostle Paul, 
a converted Pharisee. Antioch in Syria became the cradle of 
the Grentile branch of the church and of the mission to the 



172 ROME 

lieathen, in wliicli Paul was the leader ; while Peter was effi- 
cient in spreading the gospel among the Jews in Palestine and 
beyond its borders. Nnmerous chnrches were founded by Paul 
in the course of three extended missionary journeys, which 
led him beyond Asia into Macedonia, Greece, and Illyricum. 
]>y him the gospel was carried from Jerusalem to Rome, where 
he died as a martyr under Nero, in the year 67 or 68. Not far 
from the same time, according to the credible tradition, Peter, 
also, was put to death at Eome. The preachers of the Chris- 
tian faith pursued their work with a fearless and untiring 
spirit, and met the malignant persecution of the Jews and 
the fanatical assaults of the heathen with patient endurance 
and with prayer for the pardon and enlightenment of their 
persecutors. 

The Victory of the Germans. — The Parthians were prevailed 
on to return the standards and prisoners taken from Crassus. 
Drusus, the brave step-son of Augustus, made four campaigns 
in Germany east of the Phine. A fall from his horse, how- 
ever, terminated his life (9 B.C.); but his brother Tiberius 
managed to establish the Roman power over a number of the 
Germanic tribes on the right bank of the river. The freedom- 
loving Germans under a brave chief, Arminius (Hermann), rose 
in revolt and cut to pieces three Roman legions under the im- 
prudent general Varus. There in the forest of Teutoburg, 
where Varus in despair took his own life, the Germans practi- 
cally won their independence. On hearing the news, the aged 
Augustus for several days could only exclaim, "Varus! give 
me back my legions ! " After the death of Augustus, German- 
icus, the noble son of Drusus, conducted three expeditions 
against Arminius (a.d. 14-16), and obtained a victory over 
him. 

Roman Life. — The Romans, like the Greeks, built their 
towns round a height (or capitol), where was a stronghold or 
place of refuge. The courts sat in the Forum or market place, 
and there the people came to transact business. The streets 
were narrow, the exterior of the houses was plain. Within, 



REIGN OF AUGUSTUS 



173 



the chief room in the house was the atrium, which in earlier 
times was not only the common room, but also the bedroom of 
the family. Around the dinner table were couches, on which 
those who partook of the meal reclined. Eich men built 
magnificent palaces, decorating the walls of their dwellings 
with frescoed paintings, and embellishing the rooms with 
statues and beautiful furniture. 







Intekior of a Eoman House 



So great was the fondness for the arts of design, so numerous 
are the products of painting and sculpture which have been 
preserved, and so much light is derived from the buried city 
of Pompeii, that we can reproduce in imagination the daily 
life in the streets, and look into the restaurants and the shops 
of artisans and tradesmen. 

The main article of wearing apparel for a man was the toga 
thrown over the shoulders and brought in folds round the 
waist, leaving the right arm free. Under it was a tunic. 
Women wore a long tunic girded about the waist, with a tunic 



174 



ROME 



and a close-fitting garment beneath. Except on a journey or 
in an open theater, neither men nor women wore any covering 
on the head. 

The Komans engaged in physical exercise of various sorts. 







^^ <!f^*; "^ ' ■ 4 ! ■ i 



s\ll 









Exercise was succeeded by the bath, for which ever}^ con- 
venience was provided, both in public and in private. Of 
marriage there were two kinds. By one the wife passed 
entirely out of the hands of her father into the family and 



REIGN OF AUGUSTUS 



175 



Tinder the control of the husband. By the other, her property 
did not go with her, as her former legal relations to her father 
did not cease. Children were in law the property of the father. 
Their lives were at his disposal. Schools began to exist in the 
earlier period, and boys and girls studied together. A system 
of slavery was firmly established. The unlimited power of the 
master often led to great cruelty in the treatment of the slaves, 
and women as well as men were often guilty of brutal harsh- 
ness. If a Eoman sought election to an office, he went about 
soliciting votes. This was called amhitio (from ambire, to go 
around), whence is derived the English word ambition. He 
presented himself in public places in a toga specially whitened, 
and was hence called a candidate (from Candida, meaning 
white). He sought to get support by providing shows and 
games. 




Bread Shop 



176 



ROME 



THE JULIAN IMPERIAL HOUSE 



C, Julius Caesak, m. Aurelia,. 



I"— I 

C. Julftis Caesar. Julia, w. M. Atius Balbus. 

I 
Atia, 1)1. C. Octavius. 

C. Octavius (adopted as son by the will of Julius) became 
C. Julius Caesar Octavianvis Augustus, 

ni. 2, Scribonia; 3, Livia. 

I I 

Julia, Tiberius (adopted as 

m. 2, M. Vipsanius Agrippa. son by Augustus). 



Agrippina, 
m. Germanicus. 



Julia, 
ni. Acmilius Paulus. 



Caius (Caligula), 
m. Caesonia, 

I 
Julia Drusilla. 



Agrippina, 
on. On. Doniitius. 

I 
L.. Doniitius Nero, 

■m. Popi»aea Sabina. 



Aerailia Lepida, 
m. 1, Claudius; 

2, Junius Silanus. 

I 
Junia Calvina, 
tn. Vitellius. 



Claudia Augusta. 



THE CLAUDIAN IMPERIAL HOUSE 



Tiberius CLAUDnis Nero, 
m. Livia Drusilla (afterwards wife of Augustus). 



Tiberius Claudius Nero. 



Drusus Claudius Nero, 

m. Antonia, daughter of the Triumvir 

and niece of Augustus. 



Germanicus, 
m. Agrippina. 



Ti. Claudius Drusus, 

m. 5, Valeria Messalina. 
I 



Octavia, Britannicus. Bj* adoption, 
/«. Nero. Nero. 



CHAPTER XXIX 

THE EMPERORS OF THE AUGUSTAN HOUSE 

Tiberius. — Augustus said of himself that he " found Eome 
of brick and left it of marble." In his private relations, the 
emperor was less fortunate. His brilliant daughter Julia dis- 
graced him by her immorality. Her two elder sons died 
when they were young. The empire devolved on his adopted 
step-son Tiberius (24-37), who was obliged to adopt his 
nephew Germanicus. Tiberius, in his earlier years, was com- 
paratively mild in his policy. Xaturally jealous and cruel, 
however, he afterwards chose the base Sejanus as his adviser. 
A selected body of troops formed the Praetorian Guard, which 
the emperor might use at any time against the people. 
Popular assemblies for the time wholly ceased. The emperor 
usurped the right to put to death without trial all who had 
been thrown into prison. At this time, too, destructive fires 
occurred, and an earthquake reduced many cities of Asia Minor 
to ruins. Tiberius spent the last years of his life in Capreae, 
given up to debauchery and cruelty, but a prey to misanthropy 
and the torture of remorse. Sejanus in Bome destroyed 
several members of the imperial family, but was himself 
executed for plotting against the emperor (31). Tiberius at 
length closed his profligate career with a violent death, inflicted 
by his own household (a.d. 37). 

Caligula. — There was no law for the regulation of the suc- 
cession. But the Senate, the praetorians, and the people united 
in calling to the throne Caius, the son of Germanicus (37-41). 
This ruler, known also as Caligula, at first mild and generous 
in his doings, soon rushed into such excesses of savage cruelty 

177 



178 ROME 

and monstrous vice that lie was thouglit to be half deranged. 
He was fond of seeing with his own eyes the infliction of 
tortures. His wild extravagance in the matter of iDublic games 
and in building drained the resources of the empire. After 
four years, this madman was cut down by two of his guards 
whom he had grievously insulted. 

Claudius. — Claudius, the uncle and successor of Caligula, 
and the son of Drusus and Antonia, was not bad, but weak. 
He was a student and a recluse in his habits. His favorites 
and nearest connections were unprincipled. The depravity of 
his wife, Messalina, Avas such that he did right in sanctioning 
her death. The immoral and ambitious Agrippina, whom he 
next married, had an influence less malign, but she was un- 
faithful to her husband ; and this fact, together with the fear 
she felt that Nero, her son by her first marriage, would be 
excluded from the throne, impelled her to the crime of taking 
the life of Claudius by poison. 

Nero. — Nero reigned from 54 to 68. He was the grandson 
of Germanicus, and had been a pupil of the philosopher 
Seneca and of Burrus, an excellent man, the captain of the 
Praetorian Guard. The first five years of Nero's reign were 
honorably distinguished from the portion of it that followed. 
When a warrant for the execution of a criminal was brought 
to him, he regretted that he had ever learned to write. His 
first great crime was the poisoning of Britannicus, the son of 
Claudius. Nero became enamored of a fierce and ambitious 
woman, Poppaea Sabina. On the basis of false charges, he 
took the life of his wife, Octavia, the daughter of Claudius 
(a.d. 65). His criminal mother, Agrippina, after various pre- 
vious attempts made by him to destroy her, was dispatched by 
his command (a.d. 59). His unbridled cruelty and jealousy 
moved him to put to death the two men to whom he owed 
most, — Seneca and Burrus. He took up the role of a musician, 
and nothing delighted him so much as the applause rendered 
to his musical performances. He recited his own poems, and 
was stung with jealousy Avhen he found himself outdone by 



EMPEROES OF THE AUGUSTAN HOUSE 179 

Lucan. His eagerness to figure as a charioteer prompted him, 
early in his reign, to construct a circus in his own grounds on 
the Vatican, where he could exhibit his skill as a coachman to 
a throng of delighted spectators. At length he appeared, lyre 
in hand, on the stage before the populace. Senators of high 
descent, and matrons of noble family, were induced by his 
example and commands to come forward in public as dancers 
and play actors. The public treasure he squandered in expen- 
sive shows, and in the lavish distribution of presents in con- 
nection with them. 

The Christians. — Nero has the undesirable distinction of 
being the first of the emperors to persecute the Christians. 
In A.D. 64 a great fire broke out at Eome, which laid a third 
of the city in ashes. That he was suspected, without good 
grounds, of having kindled it, shows in what esteem he was 
held. In order to divert suspicion from himself, he charged 
the crime upon the Christians, who were obnoxious, Tacitus 
tells us, on account of their "hatred of the human race." Their 
withdrawal from customary amusements and festivals, which 
involved immorality or heathen rites, naturally gave rise to 
this accusation of cynical misanthropy. A great number were 
put to death, " and in their deaths they were made subjects of 
sport ; for they were covered with the hides of- wild beasts, 
and worried to death by dogs, or nailed to crosses, or set fire 
to, and, when day declined, were burned to serve for nocturnal 
lights." At length a feeling of compassion arose among the 
people for the victims of this wanton ferocity. Prior to this 
time, as long as the Christians were confounded with Jews as 
one of their sects, they had been more protected than perse- 
cuted by the Eoman authorities. Now that they were recog- 
nized as a distinct body, — the adherents of a new religion not 
identified with any particular nation, but seeking to spread 
itself everywhere, — they fell under the condemnation of 
Eoman law, and were exposed to the hostility of magis- 
trates, as well as to the wrath of the fanatical populace. 

Nero was a great builder. The ground which had been 



180 ROME 

burnt over in the fire, lie laid out in regular streets, leaving 
open spaces, and limiting the height of the houses. But a 
large area he reserved for his "Golden House," which, with 
its lakes and shady groves, stretched over the ground on which 
the Colosseum afterwards stood, and as far as the Esquiline. 

The City of Rome. — Ancient Rome was built mostly on the 
left bank of the Tiber. It spread from the Palatine, the seat 
of the oriQ:inal settlement, over six other hills, and thus 



" 






! 


^^^__ 


.«a^^^k.--:--- 


H 


^pf' 






i^^{"' .-ilU'lf 



The Forum Komanum, seen from the East 






became the "city of seven hills." On the Palatine were 
eventually constructed the vast palaces of the emperors. The 
Capitoline hill was the citadel. Of the public edifices which 
stood upon this hill in later times the greatest was the Temple 
of Jupiter. There were many fora, or open squares, one of 
which, the Forum Komanum, was the great center of Koman 
life. In later times the public works Avere the admiration of 
the world. The baths, the aqueducts, the sewers, were all 
structures of a stupendous character. The triumphal arches 
were among the architectural wonders of Rome. The Oolos- 



EMPEEORS OF THE AUGUSTAN HOUSE 181 

senm, or Flavian Amphitheater, was one of the most cele- 
brated buildings in the world. 

Death of Nero ; Galba, — ISTero precipitated a war between 
two of the generals on the frontier. One of them, Vindex, 
was killed, but Galba carried on the contest. Nero, forsaken 
even by his creature, Tigellinus, and the praetorians, at last 
gained courage to call on a slave to dispatch him, and died at 
the age of thirty (a.d. 68). Despite the corruption at Rome, 
her disciplined soldiers still maintained their superiority on 
the borders, and during this reign a revolt of the Britons 
under their queen, Boadicea (a.d. 61), was suppressed, and a 
war was carried on with the Parthians, the Armenians and 
the Jews. 

Otho ; Vitellius. — With the death of Nero, the Augustan 
family came to an end. Galba began the series of military 
emperors. A Roman of the old type, simple, severe and par- 
simonious, he pleased nobody. The praetorians killed him, 
and elevated Otho, a profligate noble, to the throne ; but he 
was obliged to contend with a rival aspirant, Yitellius, com- 
mander of the German legions, who defeated him and became 
emperor, a.d. 69. Vitellius was not only vicious, like his 
predecessor, but was cowardly and inefficient. The Syrian 
and Egyptian legions refused to obey so worthless a ruler, and 
proclaimed their commander. Flavins Yes|)asian, as emperor. 
As Vespasian's general, Antonius, approached to Rome, Vitel- 
lius renounced the throne, and declared his readiness to retire 
to private life. His adherents withstood him ; and, in the 
struggle that followed between the two parties in the city, the 
Capitoline Temple was burned. The Flavian army took Rome, 
and Vitellius was put to an ignominious death (a.d. 69). 



> CHAPTER XXX 

THE FLAVIANS AND THE ANTONINES 

Vespasian ; the Jewish War. — Vespasian, the first in the list 
of good emperors, restored discipline in the army, instituted 
reforms in the finances, and erected the Colosseum, the <i:reat 








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fe^ 



' ^ «• ^5 «airv I . ^ 




The Colosseum 



amphitheater for gladiatorial games. He put down a rebellion 
in Germany and carried on the war with the revolted Jews 
which began under Nero, by whom he was appointed to com- 
mand the Roman forces. In a.d. 67 Galilee was subdued. 
The Jewish historian Josephus was taken among the captives. 
In A.D. 70 the siege of Jerusalem commenced. The fall of the 
city was accompanied by great destruction of life. At the 
other end of the empire, in Britain, Agricola was made gov- 
ernor in A.D. 78. His conquests extended as far north as the 

182 



FLAVIANS AND ANTONINES 183 

Tyne and the Sol way, and he built forts across the isthmus 
between England and Scotland. 

Titus (a.d. 79-81). — Vespasian was succeeded by his son 
Titus, who was mild in temper but voluptuous in his tastes. 
During his reign a terrible fire and destructive pestilence at 
Eome were regarded as punishments for the sins of the nation. 
In A.D. 79 an eruption of Vesuvius destroyed Herculaneum 
and Pompeii. 

Domitian (a.d. 81-96). — Domitian, the younger brother of 
Titus, succeeded him. He was a morose and cruel tyrant. 
He was killed by the f reedmen of his own palace. In his war 
with the Dacians on the Danube, Eome had for the first time 
purchased peace from her enemies. The epistle of Clement of 
Eome, the oldest extant Christian w^riting after the Apostles, 
refers to the barbarities inflicted by this tyrant upon Christian 
disciples. 

Nerva (a.d. 96-98). — The Senate now took the initiative, 
and placed the mild and virtuous Nerva upon the throne. His 
administration was in every point in contrast with the reign of 
Domitian. He curbed the power of the praetorians by uniting 
with the Senate in appointing a most competent man as his 
colleague and successor. 

Trajan (a.d. 98-117). — Trajan was a native of Spain, and 
had been brought up in the camp. He belongs among the very 
best of the Eoman emperors. He upheld the ancient laws 
and institutions of the state. He provided for the impartial 
administration of justice, and he restored freedom of speech 
in the Senate. He founded schools, and establishments for the 
care of orphans, facilitated commerce by building new roads, 
bridges and havens, and adorned Eome with a public library 
and with a new^and magnificent forum, or market place, where 
Trajan^s Column was placed by Senate and people as a monu- 
ment of his victories and services. The total amount of 
rock and earth removed to make room for the forum has been 
estimated at 24,000,000 cubic feet. The ridge was cut away 
between the Capitol and the Quirinal. Trajan relished the 



184 



ROME 



society of literary men like the historian Tacitus. He was an 
intimate friend of Pliny (the younger), whose correspondence 
while he was governor of Bithynia throws much light upon 
the emperor's character and policy. 

Trajan's own manner of life was simple, and free from 
luxury. To the people he furnished lavishly the diversions 
which they coveted. He made an aggressive war against the 




Forum of Tkajan 



Dacians on the Danube, and constituted a new province of 
Dacia. He carried his arms into the Parthian territory, and 
three new provinces, Armenia, Mesopotamia and Assyria, 
were the fruit of his campaign in the East. In a letter to 
Pliny, he defined the policy to be pursued towards Christians, 
who had become very numerous in the region where Pliny 
governed. The effect of the emperor's rescript was to put in 
force the old law in respect to alien religions, and thus to 
place Christianity under the ban of the state. This decision 



FLAVIANS AND ANTONINES 



185 



was long authoritative, and guided the x^olicy of future 
emperors towards the new faith. 

Hadrian (a.d. 117-138). — Trajan was succeeded by Hadrian, 
a lover of peace, — a cultivated man, with extraordinary taste in 
the fine arts, and their generous patron. He was diligent and 
full of vigor in the transaction of public business. Although 
genial and affable, his temper was not so even as that of 




Tomb of Hadrian (Castle of St. Angelo) 



Trajan; and he was guilty of occasional acts of cruelty. He 
spent the larger portion of his reign in traveling through his 
dominions, personally attending to the wants and conditions 
of his subjects. He constructed great works in different 
portions of the empire : in Eome, his Mausoleum (now the 
Castle of St. Angelo), and his grand temple of Eome and 
Venus. The Pantheon, lirst built in the time of Augustus, 
was by him rebuilt in its present form. He began the wall 



186 



ROME 



connecting the Scottish friths. A fresh revolt broke out 
among the Jews (a.d. 131), under a fanatic named Bar- 
cochba, which was suppressed in 135. Jerusalem was razed 
to the ground, and the Jewish rites were forbidden within the 
new city of Aelia Capitolina, which the emperor founded on 
its site. This gave a finishing blow to the Jewish and Juda- 
izing types of Christianity within the limits of the Church. 

Antoninus Pius (a.d. 138-161). — Antoninus Pius was the 
adopted son and successor of Hadrian. He was one of the 




Tub Pantheon 

{After the model in the Metropolitan Museum, New York) 



noblest of princes, a man of almost blameless life. His reign 
was an era of peace, the golden age in the imperial history. 
He fostered learning, was generous without being prodigal, 
was firm, yet patient and indulgent, and watched over the 
interests of his subjects with the care of a father. It is a sign 
of the happiness of his reign that it does not afford startling 
occurrences to the narrator. 

Marcus Aurelius (a.d. 161-180). — Hardly less eminent for 
his virtues was the next in the succession of sovereigns, Marcus 
Aurelius (161-180). " A sage upon the throne,'' he combined 



FLAVIANS AND ANTONINES 187 

a love of learning with tlie moral vigor and energy of the old 
Eoman character, and with the self-government and serenity 
of the Stoic school, of the tenets of which he was a noble 
exemplar as well as a deeply interesting expounder. A philos- 
opher was now on the throne ; and his reign gives some coun- 
tenance to the doctrine of Plato, that the world could be well 
governed only when philosophers should be kings, or kings 
philosophers. He endured with patience the grievous faults 
of his wife, Faustina, and of his brother by adoption, and 
co-regent, Lucius Yerus. He protected the eastern frontier 
against Parthia. In the war with the Marcomanni, he drove 
the German tribes back over the Danube, and gained a signal 
victory over the Quadi in their own land. His great object 
was to strike terror into the barbarian enemies of the empire 
on the north, and prevent future incursions. Although vic- 
torious in many of his battles, he failed to accomplish this 
result. The danger from barbarian invasion increased with 
the lapse of time. Before his work was finished, Marcus 
Aurelius died at Yindobona (Yienna), in ]March, 180. During 
his reign there was persecution of Christians. Especially the 
churches of Lyons and Yienne have left a record of their suf- 
ferings. The virtuous emperors, who were strenuous in their 
exertions to maintain the old laws and customs, were apt to be 
more severe in their treatment of Christians, whom they igno- 
rantly regarded as a mischievous sect, than were those emperors 
who were men of looser principles. 

State of Morals. — The Eoman Empire in the declining days of 
heathenism presented the spectacle of a flourishing civilization 
in contrast with extreme moral degeneracy. There was great 
outward prosperity and elegance. On every hand there were 
rich and populous cities, stately buildings and beautiful works 
of art. Institutions of education abounded; trade throve and 
the Koman language and the Eoman law spread raxDidly over 
the subject countries. Y^ithin there was a grooving sensuality 
and disregard of the sanctity of marriage, and an insatiable 
greed for wealth and the pleasures of sense. One of the most 



188 



IJO.Ml 









FLAVIANS AND ANTONINES 189 

corrupting features was slavery. The theatrical performances 
came to be obscene and demoralizing. In the bloody combats 
of the gladiatorial games, men, and animals, wild and tame, 
were slain. So great was the appetite for sports that the 
number of seats for spectators in the circus Avas constantly 
increased, until, in the fourth century, it came to be not less 
than 400,000. 

Literature. — In literature the condition of Homan life re- 
sulted in the development of satire. Of the caustic, satirical 
poets, Persius (34-62) is obscure and of a moderate degree of 
merit. Juvenal (about 42-120), on the contrary, is spirited and 
full of force. Martial (43-101) wrote numerous short poems 
of a pithy and pointed character. Lucian (120-200) wrote 
" Dialogues," in Greek. The popular teachers were the rheto- 
ricians, of whom the most famous is Quintilian (about 40-118). 
The great historian Tacitus (54-117) and the elder and the 
younger Pliny were among the famous literary men of the time. 
Among contemporary Greek writers were Plutarch (about 
50-120) and the Stoic Epictetus (50 to about 120). The 
philosopher Seneca uttered many thoughts and precepts which 
bear a resemblance to the teachings of the ISTew Testament. 
Cato was one of the noble disciples of the Stoic philosophy. 
Faith in the old mythology was declining, and the spread of 
skepticism was attended, as time went on, with a reaction to 
the other extreme of superstition. Throughout this period, 
however, jurisprudence flourished. Among the most learned 
jurists of the age were Caius Papinian and Ulpian. 



CHAPTER XXXI 

THE EMPERORS MADE BY THE SOLDIERS; THE ABSOLUTE 
MONARCHY; THE DOWNFALL OF HEATHENISM 

Commodus. — After eighty-four years of good government, 
Commodus, the son of Marcus Aurelius, began his career of 
tyranny and cruelty. After a reign of twelve years, in which 
the army began to decline in discipline, and society became 
more and more corrupt, the emperor was strangled in his 
bedroom by one of his concubines, Marcia, with the assistance 
of others, all of whom he was intending to kill. 

I. Emperors made by the Soldiers 

In the course of the ninety -two years that followed (192-284) 
twenty-five emperors with an average reign of less than four 
years each sat on the throne. They were appointed and in 
many instances dethroned by the soldiers, and the period was 
a j)eriod of military license. Pertinax, a worthy man, was 
murdered in three months after his accession, and Septimius 
Severus succeeded him (193-211). The base tyrant Caracalla 
reigned from 211-217. In this reign is placed the edict which 
gave the rights of citizenship to all the free inhabitants of the 
Roman Empire. At this time too the provinces were steadily 
rising in power and influence. There was a growing jealousy 
between East and West, and Persia on the one hand and Gothic 
barbarians on the other threatened to invade the empire. 
Macrinus (217-^18) was followed by Heliogabalus (218-222), 
whose gross and shameless debauchery was without a prece- 
dent. Alexander Severus, who was slain by his o^vn soldiers in 
a war against the Germans, reigned from 222-235. He was 

190 



ABSOLUTE MONARCHY 191 

a man of pure morals and was a striking contrast to Ms fierce 
and brutal successor, Maximin, 235-238. Gordian, Philip, 
an Arabian, and Decius held the rule in rapid succession. 
In the reign of Decius (250-253) the first general persecu- 
tion of the Christian Church took place. In 250 the Goths 
invaded the empire, and Decius was defeated by them and 
slain. Valerian reigned from 253-260, and his associate and 
successor, Gallienus, from 260-268. A series of vigorous em- 
perors — Claudius (268-270) and Aurelian (270-275) — quelled 
rebellion within the borders of the empire and reestablished 
its boundaries. Probus (276-282), Carus (282-283), and 
Numerianus (283-284) brought the period of military control 
to an end. 

II. The Absolute Monarchy (to a.d. 375) 

Diocletian. — Diocletian (284-305) stripped the imperial 
office of its limitations of power and converted it into an 
absolute monarchy. There were to be two emperors under 
the title of Augustus, with two Caesars under them. At Nico- 
media, Diocletian, who was a man of imposing presence and of 
great talents as a statesman, exercised rule for twenty years. 
Maximian, the second Augustus, was to rule over Italy, Africa, 
and the Islands, with Milan for his residence. Diocletian 
shared with conservative Romans the view that the old heathen 
religion was an essential part of the imperial system, and 
believed that it was necessary to the unity of the Empire. 
In 303, therefore, he set on foot a systematic persecution of 
the Christian Church. Terrible sufferings were inflicted, but 
without avail. In 305 Diocletian abdicated and obliged Max- 
imian to do the same. After a civil war Constantine, whose 
father Constantius was one of the Caesars who had ruled over 
the Western provinces under Diocletian, gained the supremacy. 
He was at first joint ruler with Licinius, but after a bloody 
struggle, which began in a.d. 314, he became, in 324, sole 
master of the empire. 



192 



ROME 



Constantine (a.d. 308-337). — Constantine removed the seat 
of government to Constantinople, giving this name to the 
ancient Greek city Byzantium. The empire was divided for 
purposes of government into four principal divisions, named 
prefectures, each .of which Avas partitioned into a larger or 
smaller number of dioceses, and these in turn into provinces. 
He established different classes of nobles, the type of modern 




Arch of Constantine 

systems of nobility. He reorganized the army and he exalted 
his throne by giving it more of an oriental character. In the 
closing period of his life, he was much less just and humane 
than in earlier days. His career was stained by acts of cruelty 
towards members of his own family. 



III. The Downfall of Heathenism 

Progress of Christianity. — The failure of the grand attempt 
of Diocletian to exterminate Christianity was an indication of 
its coming triumph. Its progress had been gradual, yet rapid. 



DOWNFALL OF HEATHENISM 193 

Of the labors of most of the Apostles we know little. From 
Ephesus the Apostle John had exerted a wide influence. The 
cities were the principal scenes of missionary work ; flourish- 
ing churches grew up at Alexandria, at Carthage, and at E-ome. 
The adherents of Christianity were sometimes of the higher 
class, but mostly from the ranks of the poor. From the time 
of Trajan the Christian religion was treated as illegal. The 
persecutions by public authority have been said to be ten ; but 
this number is too small if all of them are reckoned, and too 
large if only those of wide extent are included. Among the 
most noted martyrs of this period are Ignatius, bishop of An- 
tioch (116), Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna (156), Cyprian, the aged 
Bishop of Carthage (258). A change took place upon the acces- 
sion of Constantine. His gradual conversion to Christianity 
made it the predominant religion in the empire. He is said to 
have beheld in the sky the illumined sign of the cross, and this 
led him to make the cross his standard. Certain it is that he 
came to rely more and more upon the God of the Christians 
for support in his conflicts with his rivals. The edict of unre- 
stricted toleration (which did not proscribe heathenism) was 
issued from Milan in 313. 

The Christian Church. — The early Christian societies were 
little republics, at first under the supervision of the Apostles. 
In the apostolic age a body of bishops or elders, and deacons, 
in each church guided its affairs, while the members took an 
active part in the choice of their officers and the general 
direction of ecclesiastical proceedings. In the second cen- 
tury, when we get a distinct view of the churches after the 
obscure interval that follows the age of the Apostles, we find 
that over the elders in each church is a bishop, whose office 
grows in importance. The bishops of the city churches acquire 
jurisdiction over the adjacent country churches, and the bishop 
in the provincial capital comes to exercise a certain superin- 
tendence within the province. Thus begins the metropolitan 
system. The patriarchal system begins to develop when we 
see the bishops of great cities such as Eome, Alexandria, and 



194 ROME 

Antioch exercising a similar supervision in large divisions of 
the empire. The grandeur of Rome, the strength of the 
church there, and many other considerations in connection 
with its historical relation to the Apostles Peter and Paul, 
gave to the Eoman See, as time went on, a growing and 
acknowledged preeminence. 

The strength of the new religion was being tested all the 
while by contending sects. There were those whose tenden- 
cies were towards Judaism, heathenism, and speculation. Cel- 
sus attacked Christianity, and the great Christian scholar 
Origen wrote a defense of Christianity in reply. Arius, a 
presbyter of Alexandria, denied the divinity of Christ, assert- 
ing that he was himself a creature, although the first-made 
of all beings. The leader of the orthodox opposition to this 
heresy was Athanasius. The debate led to the assembling of 
the Council of Nicea under the auspices of Constantine, a.d. 
325. This, the first of a series of General Councils, con- 
demned the Arian doctrine. In the West, Augustine (354- 
430), Bishop of Hippo, a great theologian, opposed the teach- 
ings of Pelagius respecting the power of the will, the native 
character of men, and the agency of God in their conversion. 
The learned Jerome, the author of the Latin version of the 
Scriptures (the Vulgate), was a contemporary of Augustine. 

Last Days of Heathenism. — When Christianity had become 
powerful, its disciples forgot the precepts of their Master, and 
sometimes persecuted the heathen. Theodosius I. (379-395) 
also persecuted the Arians, but with less harshness. The last 
adherents of ancient heathenism inhabited, in the seventh 
century, remote valleys of the Italian Islands. It was not by 
force, however, that heathenism was exterminated. It perished 
owing to the superior moral energy of the Christian faith. 
Men felt the need of the consolation of religion, and in the 
times of dread and distress which were come upon the world, 
the intrinsic excellence of Christianity was borne in upon 
them. There was a void to be filled, and the Gospel came to 
fill it. Christianity was not a merely speculative nor a merely 



DOWNFALL OF HEATHENISM 195 

moral system. It took hold of the supernatural. It presented 
to a corrupt society a moral ideal of spotless perfection. In 
the doctrine of the cross and the resurrection it inspired the 
hope of everlasting good. 

Indirectly Christianity brought into Christian society the 
germs of liberty. While it enjoined submission to rulers, it 
made an exception whenever their commands should require 
disobedience to God's law. Moreover, the Church within the 
State came to take into its hands, to a great extent, the regula- 
tion of the social life. For the first time the rulers of the 
Koman world were faced by an opposition, meek, yet too 
inflexible for all their power to overcome. 

Christian Life. — The fraternal feeling of Christians for one 
another impressed the heathen about them as something new 
and singularly attractive. The Church was a home for the 
weary and friendless. In the strong reaction against the sen- 
suality of society, ascetic tendencies appeared which in pro- 
cess of time issued in monasticism. The monastic vows were 
poverty, or the renunciation of property; celibacy, or absti- 
nence from marriage ; and obedience to the conventual superior. 

Successors of Constantine. — Constantine left his empire to 
his three unworthy sons. Constantine, the eldest, had the 
western provinces for his share. He endeavored to wrest 
Italy from his brother Constans, but was slain at Aquileia 
(340). This event left Constans master of the entire West. 
He took up his abode in Gaul, where he was slain by Mag- 
nentius, the leader of a mutinous body of soldiers (350). 
Constantius was at Edessa, engaged in war against the Per- 
sians. He marched westward, and routed Magnentius at 
Mursia, in Pannonia. This rival fled to Gaul, and was there 
attacked and destroyed. Gallus, the cousin of Constantius, 
was put to death for the murder of one of the emperor's officers 
(354). Julian, the brother of Gallus, was the sole remaining 
survivor of the family from which the emperor sprang. 
Constantius, under whom the whole empire was now for a few 
years (357-361) united, made a triumphal visit to Rome. 



196 ROME 

Coiistantius was succeeded by his cousin Julian (361-363), 
commonly called the Apostate. Fascinated by the heathen 
philosoph}', and a secret convert to the old religion, he was yet 
on the whole a just and impartial ruler. AVhile he avoided 
cr\iel persecution, he attempted in vain by personal efforts to 
weaken the Christian cause. Julian led an expedition against 
the Persians. He sailed down the Euphrates to Circesium, and 
thence proceeded into the interior of Persia. He repulsed the 
enemy, but was slain while engaged in the pursuit. The sol- 
diers on the field of battle chose one of his officers, Jovian 
(363-364), who was a Christian, to be his successor. His reign 
lasted for only seven months. He showed no intolerance either 
towards pagans or Arians, but he gave back to Christianity 
its former position. 

The army next chose Yalentinian I. (364-375), the son of a 
Pannonian warrior, who associated with him, as emperor in 
the East, his brother Yalens (364-378). Yalens ruled from 
Constantinople. Valentinian fixed his court at Milan, and 
sometimes at Treves. He was an unlettered soldier, but strict 
and energetic in the government of the state, as well as of the 
army. His time was spent mostly in conflict with the bar- 
barians on the northern frontiers. He carried forward this 
contest with vigor on the Rhine and on the Danube. He 
trained up his son Gratian to be his successor. 

The great event of the reign of Valens was the irruption of 
the Huns into Europe, and the consequent invasion of the 
Goths, by whom Valens was defeated and slain in 378. Several 
emperors followed, until, on the death of Theodosius I., the 
Great, in 395, the Eoman Empire was permanently divided. 
Rome bore the shock of the barbarian invasions until, in 476, 
Odoacer supplanted the Caesars, and became the first barbarian 
king of Italy. These invasions, which overthrew the AVestern 
Empire and transferred power to new races, mark the fourth 
century as the era of transition from Ancient to Mediaeval 
History. 



IMPERIAL HOUSE OF CONSTANTINE 



197 






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a of 



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P 



C3 iS 
w O' 



MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 

CHAPTER XXXII 

INTRODUCTION 

Character of the Middle Ages. — The Middle Ages include the 
long interval between the first general irruption of the Teutonic 
nations, towards the close of the fourth century, and the middle 
of the fifteenth century, when the modern era, wdth a distinc- 
tive character of its own, began. Two striking features are 
observed in the mediaeval era. First, there was a mingling of 
the conquering Germanic nations with the peoples previously 
making up the Koman Empire, and a consequent effect pro- 
duced upon both. The Teutonic tribes modified essentially the 
old society. On the other hand, there w^as a reaction of Roman 
civilization upon them. The conquered became the teachers 
and civilizers of the conquerors. Secondly, the Christian 
Church, which outlived the wreck of the empire, and was almost 
the sole remaining bond of social unity, not only educated the 
new nations, but regulated and guided them, to a large extent, 
in secular as w^ell as religious affairs. Thus out of chaos 
Christendom arose, a single society of peoples with like char- 
acteristics. It was in the Middle Ages that the pontifical 
authority reached its full height. The Holy See exercised the 
lofty function of arbiter among contending nations, and of 
leadership in great public movements, like the Crusades. 
Civil authority and ecclesiastical authority, emperors and 
popes, were engaged in a long conflict for predominance, 

199 



202 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 

Tlins there are three elements which form the essential 
factors in Mediaeval History, — the Barbarian element, the 
Eoman element, with its law and civil polity, and with what 
was left of ancient arts and culture, and the Christian, or 
Ecclesiastical, element. As we approach the close of the 
mediaeval era, a signal change occurs. The nations begin to 
acquire a more defined individuality, the superintendence of 
the Church in civil affairs is more and more renounced or 
relinquished; there dawns a new era of invention and dis- 
covery, of culture and reform. 



PEEIOD L — FROM THE MIGEATIONS OP THE TEUTONIC 
TEIBES TO THE OAEOLINaiAN LINE OF PRANKISH 

RULERS 

(a.d. 375-751) 

CHAPTER XXXIII 

CAUSES OF THE FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE: THE 
TEUTONIC CONFEDERACIES 

Gradual Overthrow of the Empire. — When we speak of the 
destruction of the Roman Empire by the barbarians, we must 
not imagine that it was sudden, as by an earthquake. It was 
gradual. Had the empire not been undermined from within, 
it would not have been overthrown from without. The Roman 
armies were recruited by bringing numerous barbarians into 
the ranks. A king with his entire tribe would engage to do 
military service in exchange for lands, and at length whole 
tribes were suffered to form permanent settlements within the 
boundaries of the empire. More and more both the wealth and 
the weakness of Rome were exposed to the gaze of the Ger- 
manic nations, whose cupidity was aroused as their power 
increased. Meantime the barbarians were learning from their 
employers the art of war, and were gaining soldierly disci- 
pline. Their brave warriors rose to places of command. They 
made and unmade the rulers, and finally became rulers them- 
selves. Another important circumstance is that most of the 
Germanic tribes were converts to Christianity before they 
made their attacks and subverted the throne of the Caesars. 
In short, there was a long preparation for the great onset of 
the barbarian peoples in the fifth century. 

203 



204 FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE 

Causes of the Fall of the Empire. — But the success of the bar- 
barian invasions presupposed an internal decay in the empire. 
It was one symptom of a conscious decline that the conquering 
spirit was chilled, and the policy was adopted of fixing the 
limits of the Roman dominion at the Rhine and the Danube. 
Rome now stood on the defensive. The great service of the 
imperial government, for which it was most valued, was to 
protect the frontiers. This partly accounts for the consterna- 
tion of Augustus when in the forests of Germany the legions 
of Varus were destroyed (p. 172). The essential fact is that 
Rome became unable to keep up the strength of its armies. 
First, there were lacking the men to fill up the legions. The 
civil wars had reduced the population in Italy and in other 
countries. The efforts of Augustus to encourage marriage by 
bounties proved of little avail. Secondly, the class of inde^ 
pendent Italian yeomen, which had made up the bone and 
sinew of the Roman armies, passed away. Slavery supplanted 
free labor. Thirdly, in the third century terrible plagues 
swept over the emj)ire. In 166 a frightful pestilence broke 
out, from which, according to Niebuhr, the ancient world 
never recovered. It was only the first in a series of like 
appalling visitations. Fourthly, the death of liberty carried 
after it a loss of the virtue, the virile energy, by which Rome 
had won her supremacy. Fifthly, the new imperial system, 
after Diocletian, effective as it was for maintaining an orderly 
administration, drained the resources of the people. The 
municipal government in each town was put into the hands 
of curiales, or owners of a certain number of acres. They 
were made responsible for the taxes, which were levied 
in a gross amount upon the town. The Jiscus, or financial 
administration of the empire, was so managed that the civil 
offices became an intolerable burden to those who held them. 
Yet it was a burden from which there was no escape. One 
result was, that, while slaves were often made coloni, — 
tillers or tenants, sharing with the owner the profits of 
tillage, — and thus had their condition improved, many free- 



TEUTONIC CONFEDEEACIES 205 

tolders sank to tlie same grade, which was a kind of serfdom. 
AVhen to the exhausting taxation by government — there 
were added the disposition of large proprietors to despoil 
the poorer class of landholders, and from time to time the 
predatory incursions of barbarians, the small supply of Eoman 
legionaries is easily accounted for. 

Three Races of Barbarians. — While the empire as regards 
the power of self-defense was sinking, the barbarians were 
profiting by the military skill of the Romans, and were form- 
ing military unions among their several tribes. Northward 
and northeast of the Eoman boundaries there stretched a 
"vast dimly-known chaos of numberless barbarous tongues 
and savage races." They comprised three principal races, — 
the Teutons or Germanic peoples ; eastward of them, the Sla- 
vonians ; and, farther beyond, the Asiatic Scythians. 

Teutonic Confederacies. — One of the confederacies of Ger- 
man tribes, the Goths (divided into West Goths, or Visigoths, 
and East Goths, or Ostrogoths), were in the third century 
spread over an immense territory between the Baltic and 
Black seas. East of them were the Alani. A second league 
of Germanic peoples was the Alemanni, which included the 
formidable tribes called by Caesar the Suevi. Their invasion 
of Italy in 255 was repelled by Aurelian, afterwards emperor. 
On the Lower Ehine were the Franks, and in North Germany 
the Saxons. Other Teutonic peoples were the Lombards, and 
on the shore of the North Sea the Frisians and the Danes. 
Such bold and warlike tribes as the Franks and the Alemanni 
had heard of the wealth and luxury of the civilized lands ; 
some of them had even beheld the wonders of the Eoman 
world, and against them the Ehine with its line of Eoman 
cities and fortresses could form no permanent barrier. 

The Germans were tall and robust. Capable of cruelty, 
they were still of a kindly temper ; they were brave, and not 
without a delicate sense of honor. The women were chaste, 
and were companions of their husbands, although subject to 
them. The Germans were distinguished by a strong sense of 



206 THE GERMANS 

personal independence. One of their marked characteristics 
was the habit of devoting themselves to the service of a mili- 
tary leader, to some renowned chief whom they were bound, 
by no other bond save that of honor, to adhere, in war and 
peace. They formed his "following," or comitators. They 
worshiped the God Woden (called Odin in the north), who 
Avas the divinity of the air and sky, the giver of fruits, and 
delighting in battle. Other divinities were Donar (Thor), the 
god of thunder and of the weather; Thiu (Tyr), the god of 
war, answering to IVIars ; Fro (Freyr), the god of love ; and 
Frauwa (Freya), his sister. Particular days were set apart 
for their worship. Their names appear in the names of the 
days of the week — Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, and 
Friday. Sunday is the day of the Sun, and Monday the day 
of the Moon. Saturday alone is a name of Latin origin. 



THEODOSIAN IMPERIAL HOUSE 



207 






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CHAPTER XXXIV 

THE TEUTONIC MIGRATIONS AND KINGDOMS 

The Goths ; Theodosius I. — During the reign of the Eastern 
Emperor Valens (364-378), the Huns, a people of the Tartar- 
Finnish race, invaded the empire of the Ostrogoths. Eepulsive 
in form and visage, with short thick bodies, and small fierce 
eyes, these terrible warriors overcame the Ostrogoths and 
crowded the Visigoths down the Danube into the Roman terri- 
tory. The Visigoths had been converted to Christianity mainly 
by the labors of Ulphilas, who had framed for them an alphabet 
and translated nearly the whole Bible into their tongue. He 
was an Arian, and a result of his teaching was the spreading of 
Arianism among many other Teutonic tribes. The Visigoths 
having settled upon Roman ground, were provoked to revolt 
by the avarice of imperial governors. In the battle of Adrian- 
ople, Valens was defeated by them. After this time the Goths 
were never driven beyond the limits of the Empire. Gratian, 
who, since the death of Valentinian I. (375), had been the ruler 
of the West, summoned the valiant Theodosius from Spain. 
His father had cleared Britain of the Picts and Scots. Under 
him the son had learned to be a soldier. He checked the 
progress of the Goths, divided them, incorporated forty thou- 
sand of them into the army, and dispersed the rest. After 
the death of Gratian, Theodosius obtained supreme power in 
the West. Under his auspices the General Council of Con- 
stantinople reaffirmed the orthodox or Nicene doctrine of the 
Trinity (381). In the ancient Church he had a glory second 
only to that of Constantine, but he framed harsh laws against 
Arians and pagans. 

208 



BAEBAEIAN INVASIONS 209 

Arcadius ; Honorius. — Tlieodosiiis left the government of the 
East to his son Arcadius, then eighteen years of age, and that 
of the West to a younger son, Honorius. The Empire of the 
East continued ten hundred and fifty-eight years after this 
division ; that of the West only eighty-one years. The Eastern 
Empire was defended by the barriers of the Danube and the 
Balkan Mountains, by the strength of Constantinople, together 
with the care taken to protect it, and by the general tendency 
of the barbarian invasions westward. Rome, in the course of a 
half-century, was the object of four terrible attacks, — that of 
Alaric and the Visigoths ; of Eadagaisus, with the Suevi, Van- 
dals, and Alani ; of Gaiseric (Genseric), with the Vandals ; of 
Attila, with the Huns. 

Alaric in Italy. — The Visigoths made Alaric their leader. 
Honorius was controlled by the influence of Stilicho, a brave 
soldier ; Arcadius was ruled by a Goth, Eufinus, a cunning and 
faithless diplomatist. Enraged at the withholding of the pay 
which was due to them by Arcadius, Alaric and his followers, 
through the connivance of Rufinus, ravaged Thrace and Mace- 
donia, and devastated the greater part of Greece. Stilicho came 
to the rescue of the empire, and fought the Goths in two cam- 
paigns. At length Alaric led his followers to the conquest of 
Italy, and Honorius fled for refuge to the impregnable fortress 
of Eavenna. Although Stilicho defeated the Visigoths (403), 
Honorius copied the example of Arcadius and m^ade Alaric a 
general. Alaric was moving against Eome when his retreat 
was purchased by a pension. While Honorius was celebrating 
his triumph at Eome, a monk named Telemachus leaped into 
the arena to separate the gladiators. He was stoned to death 
by the spectators, but the result of his self-devotion was an 
edict putting a final stop to the gladiatorial shows. 

Radagaisus. — Eadagaisus was a Goth. He was a heathen 
and barbarian, while Alaric was a Christian and partially civil- 
ized. Under his command the Suevi, the Burgundians, the 
Vandals, and the Alani advanced to the pillage of the empire. 
Stilicho once more saved Eome and the empire by forcing the 



210 TEUTONIC MIGRATIONS AND KINGDOMS 

invaders back into the Apennines. Eadagaisus surrendered 
and was beheaded. The portion of the hosts Avhich had not 
crossed the Alps made aii attack upon Gaul, and for two years 
the fierce invaders '^destroyed the cities, ravaged the fields, 
and drove before them in a promiscuous crowd the bishOp, the 
senator, and the virgin, laden with the spoils of their houses 
and altars.'- 

Alaric again in Italy. — The brave general Stilicho became an 
object of suspicion to Honorius, who caused him to be assas- 
sinated, and the wives and children of the barbarian troops to 
be massacred. The men fled to Alaric. He came back Avith 
them to avenge them, and appeared under the walls of Kome. 
" It was more than six hundred years since a foreign enemy 
had been there, and Hannibal had advanced so far only to re- 
treat." When the envoys of the Senate represented to Alaric 
how numerous was the population, he answered, " The thicker 
the hay, the easier it is mowed." But he consented to accept 
an enormous ransom, and retired to winter quarters in Tuscany. 

When his further demands were not granted, he once more 
advanced to Eome, seized the port of Ostia, and dictated terms 
to the Senate. Having besieged Ravenna Avithout effect, he 
marched upon Rome for the third time. Slaves Avithin the 
city opened the Salarian gate to their countrymen, and on the 
24th of August, 410, the sack of the city began. To add to 
the horrors of the scene, a terrific thunderstorm Avas raging. 
For three days Rome AA^as given up to pillage. Only the 
Christian temples were respected, and these Avere croAvded by 
those AA^ho sought an asylum Avithin them. Rome had been 
the center of Paganism. The scattering and destruction of its 
patrician families was the ruin of the old religion. 

Alaric did not long survive his victory. He was buried 
under the little river Basentius, which was turned out of its 
course Avhile the sepulcher was being constructed, and was then 
restored to its former channel (410). The slaves employed in 
the AA^ork Avere put to death, that the place of his burial might 
remain a secret. He was succeeded by his brother Athaulf 



TANDALS AND HUNS 211 

(called Adolpliiis). The work of driving the different tribes 
of Germans out of Spain was begun by his successor, Wallia. 
He partly exterminated the Alani, chased the Suevi into the 
mountains on the northwest, and the Vandals into the district 
called after them, Andalusia. Thus a beginning was made of 
a Gothic kingdom in Spain and Southern Gaul. 

Three Barbarian Kingdoms. — As a reward for their services 
Honorius gave to the Visigoths Aquitaine, in Gaul, with 
Toulouse for their capital. They subjugated the Suevi. In 
507 the Franks drove them out of Gaul. Early in the 
fifth century the Burgundian kingdom grew up in south- 
eastern Gaul, and at the end of that century the Ehone was a 
Burgundian river. Thus in the first twenty years of the fifth 
century there arose three barbarian kingdoms. Of these, that 
of the Suevi vanished (585), being absorbed by the Visigoths ; 
that of the Burgundians continued until 534 ; while that of 
the Visigoths in Spain lasted until the conquest by the Arabs 
in 711. 

Conquest of Africa by the Vandals. — Honorius, who died in 
423, was succeeded by his nephew, Valentinian III., who was 
only sixteen years old at the time. His mother, Placidia, 
acted as regent in the West. Aetius and Boniface were the 
generals of Placidia, and the discords between them were fatal 
in their effects. By the insidious arts of Aetius, who was a 
Hun, the Vandals, who were settled for a time in Spain, under 
Gaiseric were led in 429 to invade Africa with fifty thousand 
men. Boniface was defeated, and the invaders gradually 
captured the most important cities. Gaiseric, though cruel, 
was a man of genius. He built up a navy and was able to defy 
Constantinople on account of his control of many of the Medi- 
terranean islands. The Vandals were Arians, and they made 
this an excuse for plundering and maltreating the orthodox 
Christians in Africa. 

Attila ; Chalons. — In order to make a diversion in his favor 
against the combined rulers of the East and West, Gaiseric 
formed an alliance with Attila the Hun. The name of this 



212 TEUTONIC MIGKATIONS AND KINGDOMS 

fierce warrior, who w^as styled "the scourge of God," inspired 
terror wherever it was heard. Such was the dread of him that 
it was said that no blade of grass grew on the path which his 
armies had traversed. He attacked Theodosius II. in the East. 
The emperor under cover of a negotiation with the invader, 
attempted to assassinate him ; Attila discovered the plot, 
but pardoned Avith disdain the ambassadors, who had been 
sent to him in his wooden palace in Pannonia. Regarding 
Constantinople as imj^regnable, he crossed the Rhine with his 
vast army and advanced to the heart of Gaul. He laid siege 
to Orleans, whose defenders were about to give up in despair 
when they saw a cloud of dust and cried, " It is the help of 
God." It proved to be Aetius, who had made his peace wdth 
Placidia and had been made master-general of her forces. To 
the Roman troops he had united the barbarians Avho occupied 
Gaul, the A^isigoths under Theodoric, the Saxons, the Burgun- 
diaiis, and the Franks. He was advancing with all haste to 
meet the victorious Huns. On a vast plain near Chalons one 
of the decisive battles of history was fought. It was a 
struggle to determine whether the Aryan or the Scythian w^as 
to be supreme in Europe. Theodoric fell. After frightful 
carnage Attila was defeated, but he was able to lead his army 
back into Germany (451). 

Attila in Italy. — The next year Attila invaded Upper Italy 
and destroyed Aquileia, the inhabitants of which fled to the 
lagoons of the Adriatic, wdiere their descendants founded 
Venice. Leo I. (Leo the Great), Bishop of Rome, courageously 
accompanied the emperor's ambassadors to Attila's camp. The 
Hun w^as persuaded by their rich gifts and the promise of a 
tribute to retire to his forests. In 453 he died suddenly, and 
the strength of the Huns was dissipated by the rivalry of his 
chiefs contending for the crown. 

Gaiseric. — Attila did not see Rome, but in 455 Gaiseric, his 
ally, visited it with fire and sword. Leo had again interceded 
for the city, but without much success. Eudoxia, the widow 
of Valentinian III., was rudely stripped of her jewels and 



FALL OF KOME 213 

with her two daughters was conveyed away with the conqueror 
to Carthage. Eome was given up to carnage and robbery. 
For twenty years Gaiseric ruled over the Mediterranean in 
spite of the hostility of both the Eastern and the Western 
Empire. He died in 477, and his kingdom was torn by civil 
and religious disorders. 

Fall of Rome ; Odoacer. — The barbarians hesitated to assume 
the imperial crown themselves, but they determined on whom 
it should be bestowed. At last a leader of these mercenaries, 
Orestes, a Pannonian, made his son emperor — a boy six 
years old. He was called Eomulus Augustulus (4:75). Odoa- 
cer, who was the chief of the Heruli and several other fed- 
erated tribes, broke away from obedience to Orestes, and made 
himself ruler of Italy. The Senate of Rome, in pursuance of 
his wishes, in an address to the Eastern emperor Zeno, de- 
clared that an emperor in the West v/as no longer necessary, 
and asked him to give the government into the hands of 
Odoacer. Thus it was not as king, but in nominal subordina- 
tion to Zeno, the head of the united Koman Empire, that 
Odoacer governed (476). For more than a half-century the 
people had been accustomed to see the barbarians exercise 
supreme control, so that the extinguishment of the Western 
Empire was an event less marked in their eyes than it has 
seemed in subsequent ages. The old laws of the Eomans 
continued in force. 

Ostrogothic Kingdom of Theodoric. — When Odoacer had 
reigned twelve years, Zeno authorized Theodoric, King of 
the Ostrogoths, to move upon Italy. Odoacer was defeated, 
and Theodoric reigned in peace from 493 to 526. Under him 
Italy flourished, the Visigoths became subject to him, and his 
kingdom stretched from the interior of Spain across Gaul 
and Italy. He encouraged learning and fostered commerce. 
Although he was an Arian, he respected the Catholics and 
protected the Jews. The persecution of the Arians in the 
East (524) by Justin I. led him to believe that a conspiracy 
was forming against him. He accused Boethius, a learned 



214 



TEUTONIC MIGRATIONS AND KINGDOMS 



man, of being a partner in it, and condemned him to death 
(424). Theodoric gradually became unpopular with his ortho- 
dox subjects, and after his death (526) his ashes were taken 
out of his tomb and scattered to the winds. 

The Franks ; Clovis. — When, near the end of the fifth cen- 
tury, Clovis, a warlike Merovingian prince, became King of 
the Franks in northern Gaul, they numbered but a few thou- 




TOMH OF TlIEODORlC AT RaVENNA 



sand warriors. Clovis formed alliances with other Frankish 
peoples, and made war on the Alemanni. Before a battle, he 
vowed that, if a victory were given him, he would worship the 
God of the Christians, of whom his wife Clotilde was one. 
He wa§ victorious, and with three thousand of his nobles he 
was baptized by Remigius (St. Remi), Archbishop of Rheims. 
He brought Paris within his dominion and subjugated the 
most of Gaul. The Gallic Church and clergy lent him their 
devoted support. He was hailed as the "most Christian 



THE MEROVINGIANS 



215 



king " ; but he was a barbarian still, and the new faith im- 
posed little restraint on his cruelty. Large portions of Ger- 
many and Gaul became permanently subject to the Franks. 

The Merovingians. — The dominion of Clovis was partitioned 
among his four sons (511). Austrasia, on both banks of the 
Ehine, was the land of the Eastern Franks. In Neustria was 
comprised the rest of the kingdom north of the Loire. 




Gallo-Roman Costume in the Fotjkth Centuky 
{Ancient Sculjoture at Rheims) 



The history of the Franks for half a century lacks unity. 
The several rulers rarely acted in concert. They attacked 
and in 534 conquered the Burgundians, deprived them of 
their national kings, and forced them to become Caijiolic. In 
531 they made war on the Visigoths, to avenge the wrongs 
inflicted on Clotilde, a princess of their family who suffered 
indignities at the hands of the Arian kiug Amalaric. They 
crossed the Pyrenees and brought away Clotilde. In 561 a 
second division of the kingdom was made among the grand- 



216 TEUTONIC MIGRATIONS AND KINGDOMS 

sons of Clovis. Austrasia, with Eheims for its capital, had a 
population chiefly German; Nenstria, where the Gallo-Roman 
manners were adopted, had Soissons for its capital ; and Bur- 
gundy had its capital at Orleans. The population in both 
these last dominions A\'as more predominantly Eomano-Celtic, 
or Romance. Family contests ensued, and wars full of horrors. 

The Frank sovereigns of the royal Merovingian line were 
inefficient, and the virtual sovereignty was in the hands of the 
Mayors of the Palace, the officers whose function it was to 
superintend the royal household, and who afterwards were 
leaders of the feudal retainers. The family of the Pipins, 
who were of pure German extraction, acquired the hereditary 
right to this office, first in Austrasia and later in Neustria. 
The descendants of Pipin of Heristal, as dukes of the Franks, 
had regal power, while the title of king was left to the Mero- 
vingian princes. The race of Pipin was afterward called 
Carolingians, or Karlings. The preponderance of power at 
first had been with Xeustria, but it shifted to the ruder and 
more energetic Austrasians. The battle of Testry, in which 
Pipin of Heristal overcame the Neustrians, determined the 
supremacy of Germany over France (687). His son and suc- 
cessor, Charles Martel (714-741), made himself sole Duke of 
the Franks ; and Pipin the Short (741-768), the son of Charles 
Martel, became king, supplanting the Merovingian line (751). 

Saxon or English Conquest of Britain. — "When the power of 
Rome was declining in the fourth century, the Picts and Scots, 
Celts from the north of Britain, Teutonic tribes of the Low- 
Dutch stock from the mouths of the Weser and the Elbe, began 
to make incursions into this Roman province of Britain, which 
Rome could no longer protect. In 407 the Roman troops with- 
drew from the island, and it was conquered by the invading 
tribes, especially by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. These 
fierce barbarians, who drove the Celts (called by them Welsh) 
whom they did not kill or enslave, into Wales and Cornwall, 
became in the end one people under the name of Anglo-Saxons, 
Angles, or English. The kingdom of Kent was founded in 449. 



SAXON CONQUEST OF BRITAIN 217 

It was the first of seven Saxon kingdoms, the Heptarchy. They 
were ahnost constantly at war with one another. 

They had a king elected from the royal family. Freemen 
were either Eorls or Ceorls, the gentle or the simple. The 
ceorl was attached to some one lord whom he followed in 
war. The Thanes were those who devoted themselves to the 
service of the king or some other great man. The thanes of 
the king became gentlemen and nobles. The Thralls, or slaves, 
either were prisoners of war, or were made slaves for debt or 
for crime. Connected with the king was a sort of Parliament, 
called the Witenagemot, or Meeting of the Wise, composed of 
the great men, the Ealdormen (aldermen) and officers of the 
state. After the Saxons were converted, the bishops and abbots 
belonged to this assembly. In minor affairs the township gov- 
erned itself. The seven kingdoms were in the ninth century 
united under Egbert, who became ruler of Wessex in 802, and 
was styled the king of the English. 

Conversion of the Saxons. — The Saxons were not converted 
by the Celtic Christians whom they subdued. In 596, long 
after their first conquests, Pope Gregory the Great (Gregory I.) 
sent Augustine and forty monks as missionaries to England. 
Their first conversions were in Kent, whose king, Ethelbert, 
had married Bertha, the daughter of a Prankish king. Augus- 
tine became the first archbishop of Canterbury, and he conse- 
crated a bishop of London and a bishop of Rochester. In 
the seventh century the other Saxon kingdoms were gradu- 
ally converted, and York became the seat of a second arch- 
bishopric. 

Conversion of the Irish. — About the middle of the fifth cen- 
tury the gospel had been planted in Ireland, mainly by the suc- 
cessful labors of Patrick, who had been carried to that country 
from Scotland by pirates when he was a boy, and had returned 
to it as a missionary. The cloisters and the schools connected 
with them, which he founded, flourished, became nurseries of 
study as well as of piety, and sent out missionaries to other 
countries of Avestern Europe. 



218 TEUTONIC MIGRATIONS AND KINGDOMS 

The Church ; State of Learning. — Power was gradually passing 
from the Empire to the Church. The Church was strong in 
its moral force. Its bishops commanded the respect of the bar- 
barians. In the period of darkness and of storm, the voices of 
the Christian clergy were heard in accents of fearless rebuke 
and of tender consolation. The barbarians were awed by the 
kingdom of righteousness, when such a man as Leo L, Leo the 
Great, without exerting force, opposed an undaunted front to 
violence and passion. The Church " was always on the side of 
peace, on the side of industry, on the side of purity, on the 
side of liberty for the slave, and ])rotection for the oppressed." 
Slavery and serfdom Avere not condemned, but emancipation 
was counted an act of beneficence. 

Literary knowledge was kept alive in the monasteries. 
The Latin tongue was spoken by the conquered Roman sub- 
jects and contended in unconscious rivalship with the tongues 
of the conquerors. In the west and south of Europe the Latin 
Avon the A^ictory, and Italian, French, and Spanish have grown 
out of the mingling of Latin Avith the rustic dialects spoken in 
Roman times. The bar))arians Avere profoundly impressed by 
the SN^stem of Roman law, and more and more they incorpo- 
rated its exact provisions into their OAvn codes. 



CHAPTER XXXV 

THE EASTERN EMPIRE 

Religious Disputes. — While the West was recovering from 
the shock of barbarian invasion, the Eastern Empire was grow- 
ing weaker and more corrupt. The emperors were nominally 
the rulers of the Roman world, but really governed only the 
Greek and oriental provinces. The government at Constanti- 
nople was for a long time managed by the influence of women. 
The sovereigns took part in the speculative theological dis- 
cussions in which the Greek mind indulged, and undertook 
personally to decide in doctrinal disputes. For a long time 
these disputes, and wars with the Persians, absorbed atten- 
tion. 

The Hippodrome. — At Constantinople the passions of society 
were inflamed in connection with the rage for the circus, or 
hippodrome. The competitors in the chariot races wore badges 
of blue and of green, and the supporters of the respective 
factions formed themselves into political parties. Their 
animosity led to frequent and bloody conflicts in the streets. 
On one occasion, under Justinian, they raised a sedition called 
Nika (from the watchword used by the combatants), which 
well-nigh subverted the throne. 

Justinian. — Justinian I. (527-565) was the ne]3hew and 
successor of Justin I., who was born a peasant. Justinian 
married Theodora, who had been a comedian and a courtesan, 
and was famous for her beauty. It was her brave spirit that 
prevented him from taking flight when he was in imminent 
danger from the revolt of the ISTika. The most important pro- 
ceedings and decisions in affairs of state were determined by 

219 



220 EASTERN EMPIRE 

her will. She was clever and rendered services to the govern- 
ment, but was vindictive in her temper. 

After the time of Constantine, Justinian's reign was the 
most brilliant period in the Byzantine history. But under his 
despotic rule the last vestiges of republican administration 
were obliterated. His love of pomp and of extravagant ex- 
penditure, in connection with his costly wars, subjected the 
people to a crushing weight of taxation. 

Justinian's Wars. — The military achievements of Justinian's 
reign were important, but were due to the skill and valor of 
his generals, especially to the hero Belisarius. After saving 
the Asiatic provinces, which were threatened by Persia, Beli- 
sarius brought the great Persian monarch Ohosroes (531-579) 
to terms, and concluded a treaty of peace with him. In Africa, 
in Italy, and in Spain, Belisarius won many victories for the 
arms of the Empire. He destroyed the Vandal kingdom in 
Africa, and carried the Vandal king back to Constantinople 
in triumph. By him and by Narses, who succeeded to him in 
command, the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy was overthrown 
and the whole peninsula was recovered to the Empire. With 
the defeat of Totila, who died of his wounds (552), the (Ostro- 
goths as a nation finished their history. When the Bulgarians, 
who had crossed the Danube on the ice, were about to attack 
Constantinople, Belisarius saved the city. 

This great general, whose form and stature and benign 
manners attracted the admiration of the people, as his noble 
but poorly requited services gave him a right to the largest 
rewards from the sovereign, was treated by him with in- 
gratitude and indignity. The story, however, that he was 
deprived of his eyes, and compelled to beg his bread, is not 
credited. He died in 5Qo. A few months later Justinian 
himself died, at the age of eighty -three. He has been aptly 
compared, as to his personal character and the character of his 
reign, to Louis XIV. of France. Among the many structures 
which he reared was the temple of St. Sophia at Constanti- 
nople, and countless fortresses for the defense of the capital. 



LOMBARDS IN ITALY 



221 



of the Danube, and of other parts of the exposed frontier. 
Justinian's principal distinction in history grows out of the 
fact that during his reign a body of distinguished jurists were 
employed by him to make the celebrated collections of the 
Roman law which are embraced in the Institutes, the Digest 
or Pandects, and the Novels. These works taken together 
form the Civil Law — the corpus juris civilis. 




% 



isi^-3a{MriiiJj^i:|idiy m^^rn ii^ 'y - 



St. Sophia 



The Lombards in Italy. — In the great "Wandering of the 
Nations " the German tribe of Langobards, or Lombards, had 
their part. After the conquest of Italy, Narses had estab- 
lished there the Byzantine system of rule and of grinding 
taxation. Discontent was the natural result. The enemies 
of Narses at Constantinople persuaded Justin II. and his 
queen Sophia, who had great influence over him, that pru- 
dence demanded the recall of the able but avaricious and 
obnoxious governor. The queen was reported to have said 
that " he should leave to men the exercise of arms, and return 
to his proper station among the women of the palace, where a 
distaff should be placed in the eunuch's hand." " I will spin 



222 EASTERN EMPIRE 

her such a thread," Narses is said to have replied, "as she 
shall not unravel her life long." He forthwith invited the 
Lombards into Italy, an invitation which they were not loth 
to accept. Their leader was Alboin, Avho had married the beau- 
tiful Eosamond, daughter of the Gepid king in Dacia, whom 
he had slain. They founded the great Lombard kingdom in 
the North of Italy, and the smaller Lombard states of Spoleto 
and Beneventum. Eavenna, — the residence of the Exarchs, 
— Eome, Naples, and the island city of Venice, — which was 
more an ally than a subject, — were centers of districts still 
remaining subject to the Greek emperor, as w^ere also the 
southern points of the two peninsulas of southern Italy, and, 
for the time, the three main islands. Alboin was killed in 
574 at the instigation of Eosamond, to whom, it was said, at 
a revel he had sent wine to drink in the skull of Cunimund, 
her father. 

The Lombards were not like the Goths. They formed no 
treaties, but seized on whatever lands they wanted, reserving 
to themselves all political rights. The newcomers were Arian 
in religion, and partly heathen. There was little intermixture 
by marriage between the two classes of inhabitants. Lombard 
and Eoman was each governed by his own system of law. 
Later, especially under the kings Liutprand, Eachis, and 
Aistulf (71o-756), this antagonism was much lessened, and 
the Eoman law gained a preponderating influence in the Lom- 
bard codes. Gradually the power of the independent Lombard 
duchies increased, and the strength of the Lombard kingdom 
was thus reduced. The Lombards more and more learned the 
arts of civilized life from the Eomans, and shared in the trad- 
ing and industrial pursuits of the cities. Their gradual con- 
version to Catholic Christianity brought the two peoples still 
nearer together. It was within half a century of the Lombard 
conquest that Gregory I. (Gregory the Great) held the papal 
office (590-604). 

After Justinian. — Among the successors of Justinian were 
Phocas (602-GlO) and Justinian II. Their cruelty and that 



RELIGIOUS CONTROVERSIES 223 

of tlieir successors surpassed the brutality of Kero aud Domi- 
tiau. The Eastern Empire, overwhelmed with taxation, and 
ruined in trade and industry, was tottering to its fall. The 
reign of Heraclius is the only refreshing passage in the dreary 
and repulsive record of crime and degeneracy. 

Religious Controversies; State of Literature. — Theological 
subjects of great importance were discussed during the fourth 
and fifth centuries by men of high ability and moral worth. 
After that time there succeeded a period of intellectual stag- 
nation. An interest in letters and a respect for classical liter- 
ature continued indeed in the Eastern Empire, but illiteracy 
was prevalent in the West. In earlier days the Church in the 
East had been served by learned theologians of great talents 
and of great excellence. Among them Avere Basil the G-reat 
(328-379), Gregory Xyssa, Gregory of Xazianzus (326-390), 
and John Chrysostom (347-407). The last was a preacher 
of captivating eloquence and of an earnest Christian spirit. 
In the fourth century Eusebius had written a history of the 
Church. To Procopius (who had died about 56o) we owe an 
interesting history of the times of Justinian. 

In the eighth and ninth centuries a new controversy took 
place, which convulsed the Eastern Empire and extended to 
the Western. The matter in dispute was the use of images in 
worship. Pictorial representations had been gradually intro- 
duced into the churches in the earlier centuries, but had been 
opposed, especially in Egypt and in the African Church. 
After the time of Constantine they came by degrees into 
universal use. This formed a ground of reproach on the part 
of the Mohammedans. The warfare upon images was begun 
by Leo III., the Isaurian (717-741), a rough soldier with no 
appreciation of art, who issued an edict against them. The 
party of Iconoclasts, or Image Breakers, had numerous 
adherents; and the opposite party, styled Image Worship- 
ers, who had a powerful support from the monks in the 
convents, were ardent and inflexible in resisting the imperial 
measures. Neither the remonstrances of John of Damascus^ 



224 



EASTERN EMPIRE 



the last of the Greek Fathers, nor of the Eoman bishop, made 
any impression on Leo. The agitation spread far and wide. 
Subsequent emperors followed in his path. At length, how- 
ever, the Empress Irene (780-802) restored the use of images 
in church worship ; and in 842 the Empress Theodora finally 
confirmed this act. In the controversy religious motives were 
active, but they were mingled on both sides with political con- 
siderations. The alienation of feeling on the part of the 
Eoman bishops was one cause of the separation of Italy from 
the Greek Empire. 




GAKli UF A CiSIlUP 



CHAPTER XXXVI 

MOHAMMEDANISM AND THE ARABIC CONQUESTS 

Condition of Arabia. — We have now to describe the rise of a 
new religion, and with it of a new conquering nation of the 
Semitic stock. 

The Arabs of the sixth century had " all the virtues and 
vices of the half-savage state — its revenge and its rapacity, its 
hospitality and its bounty." The religion of the Arabs was 
polytheism, but all agreed in acknowledging one supreme God, 
Allah, and once in each year the tribes gathered at Mecca 
for their devotions. At the time when Mohammed was born 
(probably in 572) the religion of the Arabs had sunk into 
idolatry or indifference. 

Career of Mohammed. — Mohammed in his youth tended sheep 
and gathered wild berries in the desert. In his twenty-fifth 
year he became the commercial agent for a Avidow, Khadija, 
whom he ultimately married. In her interest he made jour- 
neys into Palestine and Syria, where he may have received 
knowledge and impressions from Christian monks and Jewish 
rabbis. He was a man of commanding presence, fluent in 
speech, and Avith pleasing Avays. Eventually he came into 
close contact Avith the hanifs, earnest Avorshipers who had 
turned aAvay from idolatry. In meditation and prayer, a vivid 
sense of the being of Almighty God, and of personal respon- 
sibility, entered into his soul. A tendency to hysteria (in the 
East a disease of men as Avell as of women) helps to account 
for his extraordinary states of mind and body. At first he 
ascribed his strange ecstacies, or hallucinations, to evil spirits, 
especially on the occasion Avhen an angel directed him to begin 

225 



226 MOHAMMEDANISM AND ARABIC CONQUESTS 

the work of prophesying. But he was persuaded by Khadija 
that their source was from above. He became convinced that 
he was a pro2:)het, inspired with a holy truth and charged with 
a sacred commission. His wife was his first convert. His 
faith he csXled. Iskun, which signified ''resignation to the 
divine wilL'' His cousin Ali, his friend Abubekr, and a few 
others, believed on him. There is no doubt that the materials 
of Mohammed's creed were drawn from Jewish and Christian 
sources : Abraham was the hanif whose pure monotheism he 
claimed to reassert ; but the animating spirit was from within. 
The sum of his doctrine was that there is only one God, and 
that IMohammed is the apostle of God. 

The Hegira. — In time he became the object of persecution. 
He lost his wife, and then his uncle \T\\o had brought him up. 
Leaving Mecca in 622, he fled to jVIedina, where pious men 
offered him an asylum. From this flight, or Hegira, the 
Mohammedan calendar is reckoned. At ^ledina he won in- 
fluence and became a political leader as well as a religious 
reformer. He aimed at cementing the Arab tribes together 
by substituting for the old tie of blood the new tie of fellow- 
ship in loyalty to him. To establish his own authority, and 
to conquer and crush all idolaters, he planned a holy war in 
which, after varied fortunes, he was finally successful. Con- 
quering Mecca in 630, he destroyed all the idols. After secur- 
ing the allegiance of the Arabian tribes, he died in (532. 

Character of Mohammed; the Koran. — From the time of the 
Hegira, the prophet had turned more and more into the politi- 
cian. From an enthusiast, he was transformed into a fanatic. 
Beginning as the i)rophet of Arabia, he came to think that 
he was the prophet of the whole world. His crusade, partly 
political and partly religious, involved a mixture of craft and 
cruelty, which exhibit his character in a new light. It is 
probable, however, that he always sincerely felt that his work 
in general was one to which he was called l)y God. His con- 
duct was, for the most part, on a level with his precepts. 
There was one exception: he himself at one time had eleven 



THE CALIPHS 227 

wives, althougli he allowed not more than four to a disciple. 
The Koran, the Bible of the Mohammedans, is regarded as the 
word of God by a hundred million of disciples. It is of une- 
qual style. In j)arts it is vigorous, but generally its tone is 
prosaic. The miracles of Jesus are acknowledged, but his 
divinity is denied, and the doctrine of the Trinity is repu- 
diated. 

The Arabic Conquests. — Mohammed made no provision for 
the succession. Caliphs, or Successors, combined in themselves 
civil, military, and religious authority. They united the func- 
tions of emperor and pope. Ali, the husband of Fatima, 
Mohammed's favorite daughter, had hoped to succeed him. 
But the older companions of the prophet appointed Abubekr, 
Mohammed's father-in-law. The Schiites were supporters of 
Ali, while the Sunnites, who adhered to " the traditions of the 
elders," were against him. These two parties have continued 
until the present day, the Persians being Schiites, and the 
Turks, -Sunnites. 

Mohammed, before he died, was inflamed with the spirit of 
conquest. The bond of national union was religious fellow- 
ship. Full of the fire of fanaticism, mingled with a thirst 
for dominion and plunder, the Arabians rapidly extended their 
sway. These warriors, to their credit be it said, if terrible 
in attack, were mild in victory. Their two principal adversa- 
ries were the Eastern Empire and Persia. Mohammedanism 
snatched from the empire those provinces in which the Greek 
civilization had not taken deep root, and it made its way into 
Europe. It conquered Persia, and became the principal religion 
of those Asiatic nations with which history mainly has to do. 
Mohammed had made a difference in his injunctions between 
heathen, apostates, and schismatics, all of whom were to be 
exterminated without mercy, and Jews and Christians, to both 
of whom was given the choice of the Koran, tribute, or death. 
They must buy the right to exercise their religion, if they 
refused to say that "Allah is God, and Mohammed is His 
prophet." 



228 MOHAMMEDANISM AND ARABIC CONQUESTS 

Oinar (G34-644), the next calipli after Abiibekr, and a 
leader distinguished alike for his military energy and his 
simplicity of manners and life, first brought all Arabia, which 
was impelled as much by a craving for booty as by religious 
zeal, into a cordial union under his banner. Then he carried 
the war beyond the Arabian borders. Palestine and Syria were 
wrested from the Greek Empire ; the old cities of Jerusalem, 
Antioch, and Damascus fell, into the hands of the impetuous 
Saracens. A mosque was erected on the site of Solomon's Tem- 
ple. The Persian Empire was invaded and was destroyed after 
a series of sanguinary battles. Ctesiphon, with all its riches, 
Avas captured, and Persepolis was sacked. The last king of the 
line of Sassanids, Yezdegerd III., having lived for many years 
as a fugitive, perished by the hand of an assassin (652). 

Meantime Egypt had submitted to the irresistible invaders 
under Amrov, who was aided by the Christian sect of the Copts, 
out of hostility to the Greek Orthodox Church, After a siege of 
fourteen months, Alexandria was taken ; but it is probably not 
true that the burning of the library was due to Omar's orders. 
In the disorders of the times, the great collection of books had 
probably, for the most part, been dispersed and destroyed. 
Six friends of Mohammed, selected by Omar, chose Othman 
(644-656) for his successor, who stirred up enmity by his pride 
and avarice. Under him the Christian Berbers in Africa were 
won over to the faith of Islam, and paved the way for its fur- 
ther advance. 

The Ommiads : Conquest of Africa and Spain. — Othman, and 
Ali, his successor in the Caliphate, were assassinated. A later 
caliph of the family of the Ommiads created a fleet and men- 
aced Constantinople (673). In 717, under Soliman, a more 
determined attempt was made upon the city, but the attacking 
forces were repulsed by the aid of the " Greek fire," an arti- 
ficial compound which exploded and burned with an unquench- 
able flame. About a.d. 700 the conquest of the African 
dominion of the Greeks as far as the Atlantic was completed. 
The union of the Arabs with the Berbers and other inhabitants 



THE ABASSIDES 229 

of that region resulted in the race called Moors. The Arabs 
crossed into Spain, and in 711 began the conquest of the Yisi- 
gothic kingdom with a great victory. In 720 the Saracens 
beheld Gaul lying open before them. Again the fate of 
Europe hung upon the result of a single battle. The Moham- 
medan power threatened to destroy the Church and Christianity 
itself. In the plains between Tours and Poitiers the Saracen 
cavalry charged time and again upon the infantry of the 
Franks under Charles Martel. Again and again the cavalry 
were beaten back, and the struggle ended in the defeat of the 
Mohammedan forces. Christian Europe was saved and the 
Aryan nations escaped subjection at the hands of the Semitic 
disciples of the Koran. But the latter maintained themselves 
in Spain for more than seven hundred years. 

The Abassides ; Bagdad. — Misgovernment embittered the 
faithful against the rule of the Onimiads in Damascus, although 
Syria had become a source of higher culture for the Arabians. 
There they became acquainted with Greek learning, Eierce 
conflicts for the caliphate arose between rival factions who 
laid claim to the caliphate. One of the Abassides, adherents 
of Ali, was made caliph by the soldiers in 750. The fierce 
cruelty of this party against the Ommiads led to the murder 
of all of them except one, who fled to Africa, and in 755 
founded an independent caliphate at Cordova in Spain. 

Under Almansor, Bagdad, a city founded by him (754-775) 
on the banks of the Tigris, was made the seat of the caliphate, 
and so continued until the great Mongolian invasion in 1258. 
Bagdad was built on the west bank of the Tigris, but, by means 
of bridges, stretched over to the other shore. It was protected 
by strong double walls. It was not only the proud capital of 
the caliphate ; it was, besides, the great market for the trade 
of the East, the meeting place of many nations, where caravans 
from China and Thibet, from India, and from Ferghana in the 
modern Turkestan, met throngs of merchants from Armenia 
and Constantinople, from Egypt and Arabia. There trading 
fleets gathered which carried the products of the North and 



230 MOIIAMMEDAXISM AND ARABIC TDNC^UESTS 

West down the great rivers to the l^ersian Gulf and the Indian 
Ocean. Bagdad was to the caliphs what 1 Byzantium was to 
Constantine, or Alexandria to the Ptolemies. It became the 
grandest city in the world. Canals to the number of six 
hundred ran through it, and a hundred and hve l)ridges bound 
its two parts together. It was furnished with many thousand 
mosques and as many baths. The palace of the caliphs com- 
prised in itself all the splendor whicli Asiatic taste and extrav- 
agance could collect and combine in one edifice. I>ut these 
powerful monarchs could retain only one portion of their vast 
empire. Three caliphs shared the power which had been con- 
centrated in one. New centers of rule were established at 
Cairo and Cordova. 

The Eastern Caliphate. — The Abassides ruling over Asia and 
Africa copied the magnificence of the ancient Persians. The 
famous caliph of Bagdad, Haroun-al-Raschid (768-809), is 
familiar even to children as the hero of the Arabian Nights. 
About him was assembled a host of jurists, linguists, and poets. 
He was made the ideal ruler of oriental fancy. In point of 
fact he behaved like an eastern despot, and he exterminated 
the Persian family of Barmecides on account of his wrath at 
an obscure affair connected with the harem. Nine times he 
invaded the Greek Empire, and left its provinces w^asted as 
by a hurricane. Like him, his son was a liberal patron of 
learning. 

Sects arose among the Mohammedans. l)ut the caliph of 
Bagdad was recognized by the followers of jNIohammed wdio 
claimed to be orthodox. The Turkish guard brouglit in by the 
eighth of the Abassides (833-842) became lawless masters and 
disposed of the throne as the praetorians had done at Rome. 
Tribes of Turks forced their way into the empire of the 
Saracens, as the Teutons had made their way into the empire 
of Rome. 

The Turkish Emirs. — In the eleventh century, one of these 
tribes, the Seljukian Turks, des|)oiled the Arabs of their 
sovereignty in the East. The caliph at Bagdad gave up all 



CALIPHS OF CORDOVA 231 

liis temporal power to Togrul Bey (1058), and retained simply 
the spiritual headship over orthodox Mussulmans. To the 
Turk, who bore the title Emir al Omra, was given the military 
command. He was what the Mayor of the Palace had been 
among the Franks. In 1072 his son made Ispahan his capital, 
and governed Asia from China to the vicinity of Constantinople. 

The Fatimite Caliphate. — Africa made a long resistance to 
the Mohammedans, whose first invasion was in 647. In the 
ninth and tenth centuries Arabs, whose capital Avas in Tunis, 
were dominant in the western Mediterranean. They estab- 
lished themselves, in their marauding expeditions, in Corsica, 
Sardinia, and Sicily, and several times attacked Italy. In 909 
they, together with the adherents of Ali, in Eez, and in con- 
nection with Egypt, formed under a Eatimite chief the African 
Caliphate, the seat of Avhich was at Cairo (968). The Eatimite 
caliphs, claiming to be the descendants of Ali and of Eatima, 
extended their power over Syria. The most famous of the 
caliphs of Cairo was Hakem (996-1020), a monster of cruelty, 
Avho claimed to be the incarnation of Deity. Their dynasty 
was extinguished by the famous Sultan Saladin in 1171. 

The Caliphs of Cordova. — In Spain the caliphs of Cordova 
allowed to the Christians freedom of worship and their own 
laws and judges. The mingling of the conquerors with 
the conquered gave rise to a mixed Mozarabic population. 
The Eranks conquered the country as far as the Ebro (812). 
The most brilliant period of the caliphate of Cordova was 
under Abderrahman III. (912-961). In the eleventh century 
there was anarchy, produced by the African guard of the 
caliphs, which played a part like that of the Turkish guard 
at Bagdad, and by reason of the rebellion of the governors. 
In 1031 the last descendant of the Ommiads was deposed, and 
in 1060 the very title of caliph vanished. The caliphate gave 
place to numerous petty Moslem kingdoms. The African 
Mussulmans came to their help, and tlms gave the name of 
Moors to the Spanish Mohammedans. Their language and 
culture, however, remained Arabic. 



232 MOHAMMEDANISM AND ARABIC CONQUESTS 

The Arabian conquests liad moved like a deluge to tlie 
Indus, to the borders of Asia Minor, and to the Pyrenees. In 
Syria they were not generally resisted by the people. Egypt, 
for the same reason, was an easy conquest. It took the Mos- 
lems sixty years to conquer Africa. In three years nearly all 
Spain was theirs ; and it was not until seven hundred years 
after this time that they were utterly driven out of that 
country. 

Characteristics of the Arabians. — In no department Vv^ere the 
Arabs in a marked degree original. They were quick to learn, 
but they invented nothing. They were apt critics, but they 
produced no works marked by creative genius. Their civili- 
zation rested on the Koran. Grammar, theology, and law 
stood connected with the study and understanding of this 
Sacred Book. Poetry flourished, and the Persians Firdusi 
(about 940-1020) and Saadi (who died in 1291) are entitled to 
important places in the history of literature. The Mohamme- 
dans studied medicine with success, and delved into alchemy 
in the search for the means of turning baser metals into gold. 



CAROLINGIAN HOUSE 



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PEEIOD II. — FEOM THE OAROLINGIAN LINE OF PKANK- 
ISH KINGS TO THE EOMANO-GEEMANIO EMPIEE 

(a.d. 751-962) 

CHAPTER XXXVII 

THE CAROLINGIAN EMPIRE TO THE DEATH OF CHARLE- 
MAGNE (A.D. 814) 

Pipin the Short. — A new epoch in European history begins 
when in the eighth century three Frankish princes, Charles Mar- 
tel, Pipin the Short, and Charlemagne accomplished the trai?.-^.- 
fer to the Franks of the Roman Empire of the West. Charles 
Martel rendered great services to the Church, but his seizures of 
Church property j^revented him from gaining the favor of the 
ecclesiastics, which Pipin succeeded in winning. In 751, with 
the concurrence of Pope Zacharias, Pipin deposed the Frankish 
king Childeric HI., and in 752 he was himself crowned at Sois- 
sons by Boniface, Archbishop of Mainz. In 754 Pope Ste- 
phen III. solemnly repeated the ceremony of coronation in the 
cathedral of St. Denis. The Carolingian usurpation was thus 
hallowed by the sanction of the Church, and the Pope gained 
a powerful ally in his contest with the Lombards. Twice 
Pipin crossed the Alps, and after humbling Aistulf, the Lom- 
bard king, compelled him to become tributary to the Frank 
kingdom and to cede certain lands and cities, between the 
Apennines and the Adriatic, to the Roman See. Thus there 
was founded the temporal kingdom of the Pope in Italy. 
Pipin was called Patricius of Rome. His sway was in effect 
the rule of the Teutonic Xorth over the more Latin South, 
which had no liking for the Frank sovereignty. 

2U 



236 



CAEOLINGIAN EMPIRE 







%r 



Charlemagne; the Saxons and Saracens. — Pipin died in 768, 
and was succeeded by his son Charles, who stands in the fore- 
most rank of conquerors and rulers. While generally known as 

Charlemagne, he is 
more properly de- 
signated Karl the 
Great, as he was a 
German in blood 
and in speech and 
in all his ways. 
His prodigious en- 
ergy and activity 
are evinced by the 
fact that he set on 
foot no less than 
fifty-three military 
expeditions. He 
was not less emi- 
nent, however, for 
his wisdom than 
for his vigor. He 
accomplished most 
of his purposes 
without bloodshed, 
and his reign on the whole was righteous as well as glorious. 
Bitter wars were waged with the Saxons and Saracens. For 
thirty-two years the struggle with the heathen Saxons went 
on. It was marked by cruel devastations and merciless acts 
of vengeance on both sides. It ended in the submission of 
the Saxon leader Witikind, who consented to receive Christian 
baptism. In returning from a war of conquest in Spain, the 
rear guard of Charlemagne's army was surprised and destroyed 
by the Basques. There fell the hero Boland, whose gallant 
deeds were a favorite subject of mediaeval romances. Charle- 
magne conquered the Hunnic Avars (791), subjugated Brit- 
tany, and kept the Slavonic tribes in awe. He made Boulogne 







Charlemagne 



CHAELEMAGNE 237 

and Ghent his harbors and arsenals for defense against the 
Danes, who in the closing years of his reign became more and 
more aggressive. 

Charlemagne in Italy. — Charles had married the daughter 
of the Lombard king Desiderins. By divorcing her he incurred 
the resentment of her father, who required the Pope, Hadrian 
I., to anoint the nephews of Charlemagne as kings of the 
Franks. Charlemagne crossed the Alps, captured Pavia, and 
shut up Desiderins in a monastery. The German king and 
the Pope were now dominant in the West. 

It was held in the West that a woman could not wear the 
imperial crown. On the throne at Constantinople sat Irene, 
who had put out the eyes of her son that she herself might 
reign. This crime served as another special reason for throw- 
ing off the Byzantine rule ; and after Charlemagne had once 
more rendered material assistance to Hadrian's successor, Leo 
III., when he had been expelled by an adverse party, the Pope, 
on Christmas Day, 800, crowned the Prankish king in the old 
Basilica of St. Peter, and saluted him as E-oman Emperor. He 
thus became the successor of Augustus and of Constantine. In 
popular imagination and feeling, the Empire had never ceased 
to be. The new emperor could, therefore, be regarded only as 
a usurper by the Byzantine rulers. In point of fact, however, 
there had come to be a new center of wide-spread dominion in 
western Europe. There was, moreover, at the same time, a 
growing diversity in beliefs and rites between Eoman Chris- 
tianity and that of the Greeks. 

Charlemagne's System of Government. — The emperor showed 
himself a statesman bent on organization and social improve- 
ment. Provision was made for local government. The em- 
pire was divided into districts in each of which a count (Graf) 
ruled. Bishops had large domains, with great privileges and 
immunities. Imperial deputies visited all parts of the kingdom 
to administer justice and to report upon the state of govern- 
ment. Twice in the "year great assemblies of chiefs and people 
gave advice in the framing of laws. As emperor, Charlemagne 



238 CAROLINGIAN EMPIRE 

exercised high ecclesiastical prerogatives and endeavored to 
restore order in the Church. He gave encouragement to learn- 
ing. One of the many scholars in attendance at his court was 
Alcuin, from the school of York in England. The emperor 
was wont to have books read to him while he sat at meals. 
Augustine's City of God was one of his favorite books. 

Charlemagne's Personal Traits. — Charlemagne was seven feet 
in height, and of noble presence. He was exceedingly fond of 
riding, hunting, and swimming, and knew neither weariness 
nor fear. He died at the age of seventy (January 28, 814). 
Beneath the floor of the stately church which he built at Aix- 
la-Chapelle, his body was placed in a sitting posture in his 
royal robes, with the crown on his head, and his horn, his sword, 
and a book of the Gospels on his knee. In this posture his ma- 
jestic figure was found when at the end of the tenth century 
his tomb was opened by Otto III. The marble chair in which 
the dead monarch sat is still to be seen in the cathedral at Aix. 

Extent of the Empire. — Charlemagne's empire comprised all 
Gaul and Spain to the Ebro, all that was then Germany, and 
the greater part of Italy. Slavonic nations along the Elbe 
were his allies. Pannonia, Dacia, Istria, Liburnia, Dalmatia, 

— except the seacoast towns which were held by the Greeks, 

— were subject to him. He had numerous other allies and 
friends. Even Haroun-al-Easchid, the famous caliph of Bag- 
dad, held him in high honor. Among the wonderful presents 
which were said to have come from the caliph were an elephant, 
and a curious water-clock, which was so made that, at the end 
of the hours, twelve horsemen came out of twelve windows, 
and closed up twelve other windows. 

Condition of the People. — The number of free Franks grew 
less under Charlemagne, thinned out in the wars or sunk 
into vassalage. Nine-tenths of the population of Gaul were 
slaves. In times of scarcity they fled in crowds to the mon- 
asteries. It was only the strength of the emperor which 
retarded the development of the feudal independence of the 
greater lords. 



LABORS OF THE MISSIONARIES 239 

Conversion of Germany: Boniface. — Colmnban, who died in 
615, and liis pupil Gallus had come as missionaries from the 
British Isles, and they labored with success among the Ale- 
manni. Both were born in Ireland and trained in the mon- 
astery at Bangor, the ancient Celtic town in North Wales. 
Winfrid, a Saxon missionary from England, received from 
Eome the name of Bonifacius (680-755). He converted the 
Hessians, and, among other like establishments, founded the 
celebrated monastery of Fulda. He proved the impotence of 
the heathen gods by hewing down the sacred oak, an object of 
religious reverence, at Geismar. He organized the German 
church and was made archbishop of Mainz by the Pope in 
747. His long career was crowned with martyrdom, while he 
was preaching the gospel to the Frisians. Through a long 
series of years his disciple Sturm directed the work of four 
thousand monks from the monastery of Fulda. 

Conversion of the Scandinavians.— Ansgar (801-865), the apos- 
tle of the Scandinavians, was made Archbishop of Hamburg, 
and afterwards Bishop of Bremen. The missionary work in 
Sweden and in Denmark was carried forward with zeal. Olaf 
Schooskonig became the first Christian king in Sweden, — St. 
Olaf, the patron saint of Norway. The triumph of Danish 
Christianity was secured when Canute became King of England. 

The Benedictines. — Benedict of Nursia founded the monas- 
tery of Monte Cassino, northwest of Naples, and became the 
principal organizer of monasteries in western Europe. His 
societies of monks were at first made up of laymen, but after- 
wards of priests. They united manual labor with study and 
devotion. The three vows of the monks were chastity, includ- 
ing abstinence from marriage ; jDoverty, or the renunciation of 
personal possessions ; and obedience to superiors. From the 
Benedictine monasteries the surrounding peoples learned agri- 
culture and the useful arts. The clergy repaired to them for 
education. In times of tumult and of want, they long contin- 
ued to be the asylums for the distressed. Their abbots rose to 
great dignity and influence. 



EMPIRE OF 
CHAKLF.3IAGNK 

A.D.843 / 





l^ChapeUen Z: 









Mi ^ . ) • rr-^^ ^^; ■ 






EMPIRE OF 
CHARLEMAGNE 

A.D.887. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII 

DISSOLUTION OF CHARLEMAGNE'S EMPIRE : RISE OF THE 
KINGDOMS OF FRANCE, GERMANY, AND ITALY 

Divisions in the Empire. — Differences in language and in 
laws tended to the dismemberment of the empire, which had 
been held together by the force of Charlemagne's own char- 
acter and the vigor of his administration. The Anstrasian, or 
East Eranks, to wdiom Charlemagne belonged, desired unity, 
but the Gallo-Eomans in the west and the Teutons farther 
east longed for independence. 

Louis the Pious (814-840), Charlemagne's youngest son, was 
his father's sole successor, but he was better adapted to a 
cloister than to a throne. He made a premature division of his 
dominions between his sons Lothar, Pipin, and Louis. These 
set on foot a revolt, when their father had attempted a new 
distribution of the states in order to provide for Charles the Bald, 
his son by a second wife. This revolt was in time put down, 
but wdien the sons rose once more against the father, they 
were reenforced by the Pope, Gregory TV. Deserted by his 
troops, the emperor was taken prisoner, but though he was 
afterwards released, there was nothing but continued discord. 
His surviving sons, Lothar, on the one hand, Louis the Ger- 
man and Charles the Bald on the other, waged war after their 
father's death. In the great battle of Eontenailles, in 841, 
Lothar was defeated, and by the treaty of Verdun, in 843, the 
three kingdoms were set apart from one another. Charles the 
Bald was given the Western and Latinized Franks, and Louis 
the German took the Eastern and German Franks. Lothar, 
who retained the title of emperor, with no substantial power, 

241 



242 DISSOLUTION or charlemagne's empire 

received the middle portion of Frankisli territory, including 
Italy and a long narrow strip extending to the North Sea, 
between the dominions of his brothers. It included, using 
the modern name, Provence on the south, and Holland on the 
north. This land later took the name of Lotharingia, or 
Lorraine. This division marks the birth of the German and 
French nations as such. It likewise marks the breaking up 
of the empire of Charlemagne. 

Eastern Carolingians. — Charles the Fat (882-887) succeeded 
Lothar. He was a sluggish prince, and instead of fighting 
the Normans preferred to hire their bands to retreat, only to 
be replaced by new invaders from the same source. Although 
for a while nearly the whole monarchy of Charlemagne was 
united under him, he was quickly deposed, and died in the 
following year. The Carolingian Empire really ceased to be. 

Arnulf, the grandson of Louis the German, was chosen king, 
was recognized as emperor, and was crowned at Rome. In 911, 
in the person of his son, Louis tlie Child (899-911), the line 
of Louis the German died out. The kingdom of Geriuany 
continued as a distinct kingdom. 

Kingdom of France. — In 8G1, Charles the Bald gave the 
county of Paris to Robert the Strong in order that he might 
resist the Normans who had captured Rouen in 841. Robert 
was the great-grandfather of Hugh Capet, who in later days 
became the founder of the kingdom of France. Odo or Eudes, 
Count of Paris, successfully defended the city against the 
attacks of the Northmen. When the inefficient Charles the 
Fat was deposed, the nobles of France chose Odo as their 
king, and his duchy — Western or Latin Francia — was the 
strongest state north of the Loire. Between the family of 
Odo and the Carolingian family there was a conflict, with suc- 
cess now on one side, and now on the other, for about a cen- 
tury. The German Karlings — that is, rulers of the family 
of Charlemagne — reigned at Laon. The dukes of Odo's fam- 
ily had Paris for their capital. Louis IV. " from beyond seas," 
who had taken refuge in England at the court of his uncle, 



KINGDOMS OF FRANCE, GERMANY, AND ITALY 243 

Aethelstan, had a struggle with Hugh the Great, Odo's nephew, 
but was overcome. On the death of Louis V. (987) the direct 
line of Charlemagne became extinct. The only Carolingian heir 
was an uncle, Charles, Duke of Lorraine. The barons j)assed 
him by and declared in favor of Hugh Capet, and Avith 
the support of Duke Richard of Normandy, Hugh Capet, 
the founder of the Capetian line, the ancestor of all the 
French kings, the Bonapartes excepted, was crowned in July, 
987. Thus the kingdom of France began; but within its 
boundaries there were many sovereign states whose lords re- 
garded themselves as the new king's equals. 

The German Kingdom. — In Germany there were two great 
parties which contended with one another. To one belonged 
the older Alemannic and Austrasian unions, which formed the 
duchies of Swabia, Bavaria, and Franconia, while to the other, 
consisting chiefly of the duchy of Saxony, were attached Thu- 
ringia and a part of Frisia. In France the royal power was 
weak, and it was 'therefore suffered to grow. The tendency 
was toward centralization. The long continuance of the family 
of Hugh Capet made the monarchy hereditary. In Germany 
the royal i^ower was strong, and constant efforts were made to 
limit it, while frequent changes of dynasty helped to make the 
monarchy elective. Thus, upon the death of Louis the Child, 
Conrad of Franconia was chosen king by the clerical and secu- 
lar nobles of the five duchies in which the counts elevated 
themselves to the rank of dukes. The dukes chafed under 
the rule of the king. For ^he glory of the nation, however, 
and for reasons of foreign policy, they were anxious to preserve 
the monarchy. The Hungarians renewed their incursions, and 
so great was his desire to drive them out, that Conrad upon 
his death-bed sent his crown and jewels to his enemy Henry, 
Duke of the Saxons, whom he thought most capable of defend- 
ing the country against the invaders. Conrad, in his contests 
with his dukes, may be said to have begun the struggle of the 
royal suzerains .against the great feudal lords, which went on 
through the Middle Ages. 



244 DISSOLUTION OF CHARLEMAGNE'S EMPIRE 

Italy. — After the breaking up of the empire of Charles the 
Fat, there was in Italy a strong feeling hostile to the Ger- 
mans. The people wanted the King of Italy and emperor of 
the Romans to be of their own nation ; but rival claimants of 
the Italian throne made disturbances which Arnulf came into 
Italy to quell, and it was on his second visit in 896 that he 
was crowned emperor. Berengar I. triumphed for a while over 
his competitor liudolph, but was finally defeated and assas- 
sinated. His grandson Berengar II. fled to Germany in 943, 
and there his relations with Otto I. (the Great) led to very 
important consequences, to be narrated hereafter. 

The Papacy. — After the Lombard conquest, the popes, Avhile 
subject to the tyranny of the Eastern emperors, received little 
protection from Constantinople, and were compelled to make 
such alliances as those which they formed with Pi[)in and 
Charlemagne. In this way they were recognized as having a 
spiritual headship wdiich w^as the counter})art of the secular 
supremacy of the emperor. The election of the pope was to 
be sanctioned by the emperor, and that of the emperor V)y the 
pope. As the bishops grew in power, the highest bisliop of all, 
the Roman Pontiff, was correspondingly exalted. In the ninth 
century there appeared the Pseudo-Isiclorian decretals, fabri- 
cated documents purporting to belong to early Christian cen- 
turies, wdiich recognized the highest claims of the chief rulers 
of the Church. They contained little which had not been 
asserted, at one time or another, and their falsity was not 
suspected. 

In the tenth century Italy, in the absence of imperial re- 
straint, was torn by violent factions. Anarchy prevailed, and 
the scandals which belonged to this period of the history of 
the papacy are to be ascribed to the social condition of the 
country and to the vileness of the leaders who had usurped 
power at Rome. For half a century the papal office was dis- 
posed of by the Tuscan party, and especially by Theodora and 
her daughter Maria (or Marozia), two depraved women belong- 
ing to it. 



CHAPTER XXXIX 

INVASIONS OF THE NORTHMEN AND OTHERS; THE 
FEUDAL SYSTEM 

Incursions of the Northmen. — The Scandinavians, or Xorth- 
men, gradually formed the kingdoms of Sweden, Xonvay, and 
Denmark. They were a Teutonic people and were called 
Vikings, or children of the bays, from the fact that their fleets 
lay in wait for their enemies in creeks and bays along the 
coasts of northern Europe. Gradually they extended their 
marauding excursions to the coasts and rivers of Erance, and 
their attacks hastened the fall of the Erankish empire. They 
burned Rouen in 840, and plundered other cities. They even 
ventured on the Spanish peninsula, took Lisbon and burned 
Seville. They made a descent upon Italy and plundered the 
city of Luna, which they at first mistook for Rome. In 857, 
after having captured Tours and besieged Orleans, they burned 
the churches of Paris, and in 866 slew Robert the Strong, who 
engaged in a conflict with them. In 911 Rolf, or Rollo, one 
of their chiefs, accepted the offer of Charles the Simple, King 
of the West Eranks, to abandon to them as much territory as 
they could settle and cultivate. Rollo received baptism and 
became the liege of King Charles, who reigned at Laon. Later 
these Xorthmen, or Normans, made an alliance with the dukes 
against the kings, and by their assistance Hugh Capet was 
enabled to found the kingdom of Erance. Under the Xor- 
mans, tillage flourished, and the feudal system was established 
more fully than elsewhere. The duke had more control over 
his vassals. 

Settlements of the Northmen. — As early as 852, there was a 
Scandinavian king in Dublin. The Northmen conquered the 

245 



246 INVASIONS OF THE NORTHMEN 

Orkneys, the Hebrides, and the Shetland Isles. On the north- 
ern coast of Scotland they founded the kingxlom of Caithness, 
which they held to the end of the twelfth century. Iceland 
was discovered by the Northmen, and was settled by them in 
874. About the same time Greenland was discovered, and 
towards the end of the tenth century a colony was planted 
there. This led ^o the discovery of the mainland of America, 
and to the occupation, for a time, of Vinland, which is sup- 
posed to have been on the coast of Xew England. In Russia, 
where the Northmen were called Varangians, Rurik, one of 
their leaders, occupied Novgorod in 862, and founded a line of 
sovereigns which continued until 1598. 

The Danes in England. — The ravages of the Danes increased 
in England during the later years of the reign of Egbert, King 
of the West Saxons, to whom the other English kingdoms sub- 
mitted. With them Alfred (871-901) was in perpetual con- 
flict, and at times his fortunes reached a low ebb. It was then, 
according to the legend, that he was scolded by the peasant 
woman, in whose hut he had taken shelter, and who, not 
knowing him, had set him to watch her cakes, but found 
that he had allowed them to burn, so absorbed was he in other 
thoughts. He finally gained advantages over the Danes, but 
in the treaty which he made with them they received East 
Anglia and part of Essex and Mercia. They had already set- 
tled in Northumberland to some extent, so that a large part 
of England was in Danish hands. The names of towns end- 
ing in hy, such as Whitby, are of Danish origin. Alfred was 
a patron of learning and himself translated many books from 
the Latin. He founded monasteries and compiled a body of 
laws called Dooms. The last years of his reign were spent in 
quiet. His grandson Aethelstan (925-940) was victorious over 
the Scotch and the Welsh of the north as well as over the 
Danes. The power of Saxon England reached its height under 
Edgar (959-975). But under Aethelred II., the Unready, the 
Danish invasions were renewed. Swegen, who had been bap- 
tized, but had lapsed into heathenism, completely conquered 



THE NORTHMEN IN ENGLAND 247 

England in 1013, Aethelred fleeing to Duke Eichard the Good, 
of Normandy, whose daughter, Emma, he had married. 

Canute. — After Swegen's death, Edmund Ironside, the son 
of Aetheh-ed, fought six pitched battles with Cnut, or Canute, 
Swegen's son, who finally consented to divide the kingdom 
with him. In the same year, however, the English king died, 
and Canute, who had become a Christian, found himself the 
king of all England (1017-1035). The ealdormen, or Earls, 
a word derived from the Danish, ruled under him. He had 
inherited the crown of Denmark, and won Norway and part 
of Sweden, so that he reigned over a large empire. He proved 
himself a good ruler, but his sons lacked their father's ability. 
There were conflicts for seven years, and then Edward, called 
the Confessor, who was the son of Aethelred, was chosen king 
by the English (1042). 

Incursions of Saracens and Hungarians. — The fleets of Charle- 
magne had kept the piratical vessels of the Saracens at a safe 
distance from the Italian shores. After this time, however, 
they took possession of Sicily, and they even pillaged Aries 
and Marseilles, establishing a military colony on the shores of 
Provence. A little later similar predatory incursions were 
made by the Hungarians, or Magyars, into Bavaria, Lombardy, 
and the valley of the Danube. They devastated Alsace, Lor- 
raine, and Burgundy, and their name long remained in Erance 
a symbol of detestable ferocity. The object of such incursions 
as these was plunder and not permanent conquest. The North- 
men and Saracens moved in small bands, and wandered from 
place to place. The Hungarians indeed established themselves 
in the valley of the Theiss and the Danube, and there they 
remained. 

The Northmen iisr England and Italy 

At this point it is proper to describe two great achievements 
of the Northmen, which in fact occurred as late as the eleventh 
century. They are the conquest of England and the founding 
of the kingdom of Naples and Sicily. 



248 INVASIONS OF THE NORTHMEN 

I. The Kormax Coxquest of Exglaxd 

The Norman Invasion. — At the end of the eleventh century, 
the Saxons were a strong and hardy race. They were enthusias- 
tic in outdoor sports. They fought on foot, the common soldiers 
often having no better weapon than a fork or sharpened stick. 
London was fast becoming the chief town, and Winchester, 
the old Saxon capital, w^as losing its preeminence. The Danish 
invaders had done much to retard literary progress, but the 
records of Alfred and of such scholars as Bede and Alcuin 
showed that literature was valued. 

Across the Channel, in the meantime, Normandy had become 
one of the principal states in western Europe. Edward the 
Confessor had been brought up in ^STormandy, and there grew 
up in opposition to him and his Norm an friends a party led 
by Godwin, Earl of the West Saxons. Edward's wife Edith 
was the daughter of Godwin, and as they had no children, he 
recommended that Harold, the son of Godwin, should be his 
successor. The Normans claimed that he had promised that 
their duke, William, should reign after him. It was said that 
Harold himself, on a visit to William, had either willingly or 
unwillingly sworn to give him his support. Edward, who was 
devout in his ways, though a negligent ruler, was buried in 
the monastery called Westminster, which he had built, and 
which was the precursor of the magnificent church bearing the 
same name that was built afterwards by King Henry III. 
Harold was now crowned. Duke William, full of wrath, ap- 
pealed to the sword ; and, under the influence of the arch- 
deacon Hildebrand, Pope Alexander II. took his side, and 
sanctioned his enterprise of conquest. 

At the same time the north of England was invaded by the 
king of the Norwegians, a man of gigantic stature, named Hard- 
rada. The Norman invaders landed without resistance on the 
shore of Sussex, on the 28th of September, 1066, and occupied 
Hastings. Harold encamped on the heights of Senlac. On 
the 14th of October the great battle took place, in which the 



WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR 



249 



Normans were completely victorious. The English stood on 
a hill in a compact mass. They repulsed the Norman charges. 
The Normans pretended to 
retreat ; this moved the Sax- 
ons to break their array in 
order to pursue. The Nor- 
mans then turned back, and 
rushed upon them in a fierce 
onset. An arrow pierced the 
eye of Harold, and he was 
cut to pieces by four French 
knights. The Norman duke, 
William the Conqueror, was 
crowned king on Christmas 
Day; but it was four years 
before he overcame all re- 
sistance and got full control 
over the country. The larg- 
est estates and principal of- 
fices in England he allotted 
to Normans and other foreigners. The crown of William 
was handed down td'-his descendants, and gradually the con- 
querors and the conquered became mingled together as one 
people. 

The Norman Spirit and Influence. — The Norman gentlemen 
who gained the day for William fought on horseback with 
lance and sword. We can learn the details of the costume of 
the combatants from the pictures of the conquest in the tapes- 
try at Bayeux. Victors in battle though they were, the real 
conquest of England by the Normans was very gradual, and 
the result of it was the amalgamation of one people with the 
other. The very title of Conqueror, attached to AVilliam, was 
a legal term (conquaestor), and meant purchaser or acquirer. 
There was an observance of legal forms in the establish- 
ment and administration of his government. The public 
land was appropriated by him, and became crown-land. So 




William the Conqxteror 



250 INVASIONS or the Northmen 

all the land of the English was considered to be forfeited, 
and estates . were given out liberally to Xorman gentlemen. 
The nobility became mainly Norman, and the same was true 
of the ecclesiastics and other great officers. All the land 
was held as a grant from the king. In 1085 the making 
of Domesday was decreed, which Avas a complete statistical 
survey of all the estates and property in England. The 
object was to furnish a basis for taxation. The Domesday 
Book is one of the most curious and valuable monuments of 
English history. 

Among the changes in law made l)y William was the intro- 
duction of the Norman wager of battle, or the duel, by tlie 
side of the Saxon methods of ordeal. In most of the changes, 
there was not so much an uprooting as a great transformation 
of former rules and customs. It was a natural result of the 
conquest that England should be brought into more intimate 
relations with the continent. Foreign ecclesiastics came into 
England and established a closer connection between the Eng- 
lish Church and the Pajoacy. Thus England was before long 
led to take an important part in the crusades or holy wars for 
the rescue of the sepulcher at Jerusalem from the Saracens. 
Multitudes of Normans emigrated into England, and the Nor- 
mans became Englishmen. Chivalry, with its peculiar ideas 
and ways, came in with the French influence. Though the 
conquerors, as well as the conquered, Avere Teutons, yet the 
Normans had acquired the French language in their adopted 
home across the Channel. The English tongue, indeed, contin- 
ued to be essentially Teutonic in structure, but a large Latin 
element was introduced into it through the influence of the 
French. For a long time the Teutonic and the Norman 
French were both spoken. At the end of the twelfth century 
English had become the language of common conversation 
and of popular writing; but French was still the language 
of polite intercourse, and learned men wrote in Latin. 

The Norman Government. — As regards feudalism, one vital 
feature of it — the holding of land by a military tenure, 



NORMAN GOVERNMENT 251 

or on condition of military service — was redncecl to a 
system by the conquest. But William took care not to be 
oversliadowed or endangered by his great vassals. He levied 
taxes on all, and maintained the place of lord of all his sub- 
jects. He was King of the English, and sovereign lord of the 
Xorman nobles. He summoned to the Witan, or Great Assem- 
bly, those whom he chose to call. This summons, and the 
right to receive it, became the foundation of the Peerage. Out 
of the old Saxon Witan there grew in this way the House of 
Lords. The low^er orders, when summoned at all, were sum- 
moned in a mass ; afterwards, we shall find that they were 
called by representatives ; and, in the end, when the privilege 
of appearing in this way was converted into a right, the House 
of Commons came into being. In like manner, the King's 
Court took the place of the old Witenagemot. From this body 
of the king's immediate counselors emerged in time the Privy 
Council and the Courts of Law. Out of the Privy Council 
grew, in modern times, the Cabinet, composed of v/hat are 
really "those privy councilors who are specially summoned." 
Committees of the National Assembly, in the course of Eng- 
lish history, acquired " separate being and separate powers, as 
the legislative, judicial, and executive branches of the govern- 
ment." Thus the English Constitution is the product of a 
steady growth. 

Norman Buildings. — The Kormans built the cathedrals and 
castles. Down to the eleventh century, the Bomanesque, or 
round-arched architecture, derived from Italy, had been the 
one prevalent style in western Europe. In the modification 
of it,_ called the aS"orman style, we find the round arch associ- 
ated with massive piers and narrow windows. Durham Cathe- 
dral is an example of the Norman Romanesque type of build- 
ing. To the main structure first erected many additions were 
afterwards made. This noble cathedral is five hundred and 
seven feet in length by two hundred in width, and the central 
tower is two hundred and fourteen feet high. The Norman 
conquerors covered England with castles. Sometimes they 



252 



INVASIONS OF THE NORTHMEN 



were square, and sometimes polygonal ; but, except in the 
palaces of the kings, they aifordecl little room for artistic 
beauty of form or decoration. They were erected as for- 
tresses, and were regarded by the people Avith execration 
as strongholds of oppression. The Tower of London, which 
has served both as a palace and a prison, was begun by Wil- 
liam, by whom the Keep or great White Tower was built. 
Additions were made by successive sovereigns. This edifice 



u 



? « 1^ •? 




Tower of L(.>ndox 

is associated with some of the most tragic events and scenes 
in English history. An interesting part of it is the Traitor's 
Gate, where prisoners of state were formerly landed. The 
Chapel in the White Tower is the oldest example of Norman 
church architecture in England. It is a symbol of the union 
in the Conqueror of a sincere faith in religion with a resolute 
assertion of personal authority. While he took pains to select 
pious and upright men for the great ecclesiastical offices, he 
required obedience from them as from all others. 



NORMAN GOVERNMENT 



253 




A NoEMAN Vessel of the Eleventh Centuky. 
{From the Bayeux Tapestries) 



II. The Normans in Italy and Sicily 

The Norman Kingdom of Naples and Sicily. — Wandering 
knights from Normandy, reinforced by occasional troops of pil- 
grims and warriors, had gained a settlement in southern Italy 
in the early part of 
the eleventh cen- 
tury. They sup- 
ported the viceroy 
of the Eastern em- 
peror in an attack 
upon the Arabs or 
Saracens in Sicily. 
He failed to give 
them their due re- 
ward, and they be- 
gan, under Robert 
Guiscard, the conquest of Apulia, which ended in making them 
masters of all southern Italy. In 1072, after having defeated 
the army of Pope Leo IX. some years before, Bobert wrested 
Sicily from the Saracens and captured the seaports of Otranto 
and Bari. Death frustrated his grand scheme of conquering 
the Eastern Empire (1085). 

His nephew, Roger II. (1130-1154), united the possessions 
of the Greeks of southern Italy and Sicily to the countries 
conquered by his uncle and formed the kingdom of Sicily, re- 
ceiving the title of King from the Pope. Under Roger and his 
two successors, William the Bad (1154-1166) and William the 
Good (1166-1189), this flourishing kingdom became a center 
of culture and commerce. At Salerno a celebrated school of 
medicine was established, and at Amalfi and Naples there 
were famous schools of law. In 1189 the kingdom by inherit- 
ance fell to the Hohenstaufen German princes through Con- 
stantia, the wife of Henry VI. "The Normans in Sicily," 
says Mr. Freeman, " so far as they did not die out, were 
merged, not in a Sicilian nation, for that did not exist, but 



254 INVASIONS OF THE NORTHMEN 

in the common mass of settlers of Latin speech and rite, as 
distinguished from the older inhabitants, Greek and Saracen." 
In Sicily and southern Italy, their kingdom left no permanent 
traces behind, while in England they modified the national 
character as they gradually became merged in the English. 



THE NORMANS 

Tancked of Hautkville. 



Sicily. 



Robert Guiscard, Duke of Apulia, Roger, the Great Count, d. 1101. 

d. 1085. I 

Uoger (of Apulia, 1127; king, 1130), 1101-1154. 



William I. the Bad, 1 154-1 KiC, Constance ((/. 1198), m. Emperor 

m. Murg-aret, daughter of Garcia IV. of Navarre. Henry VI. 

I 

William II. the Good, 116G-1189, 
;//. Joanna, daughter of Henry II. of England. 



The Eeudal System. 

Origin of Feudalism. — It is a mistake to ascribe the origin 
of feudalism to a partition of lands by the king of the con- 
quering Franks among his chief officers and followers, and 
their grants of land, on like conditions, to those below them. 
The growth of feudal relations was rather from beneath up- 
wards. The love of independence, and the weak control of 
any central power, impelled poorer freemen to seek the pro- 
tection of the richer and stronger, binding themselves to render 
a certain submission and services in return. The tie between 
the lord and vassal was commonly a gift of land by the former, 
which at first was revocable, but tended to become a perma- 



FEUDAL SYSTEM 



255 




Act of Faith and Homage 
{Seal of a Knight of Aries) 



nent, hereditary holding. The vassal on his part went through 
the ceremony of " homage," promising to be the " man " of the 
superior, to aid him in battle, to pay taxes, and to own his 
jurisdiction. The term "feud" signi- 
fies the land which was thus held. 
Officials without land entered into the 
feudal relation, and transmitted it to 
heirs, the fees of office being the offi- 
cer's pay. More and more this system 
grew to be the characteristic method 
of living and of government in the 
disorder that prevailed after the fall 
of Charlemagne's empire. The prin- 
ciple of heredity, in virtue of which 
feuds descended from father to son or to the next heir of the 
blood, gradually gained a firm footing. In times of danger 
there Avas a constant tendency in small proprietors whose 
property was allodial — that is, owned by them absolutely 
and not held of a superior — to place themselves under the 
protection of the rich and the strong, and thus allodial prop- 
erty became feudal. During the turbulent days of the tenth 
and eleventh centuries, castles upon the hilltops took the place 
of farmhouses in the country. Around them clustered the 
villages in which lived the dependents of the lord. They 
tilled his land and fought for him in return for the protection 
which he afforded them. In this social organization there 
were the two grand classes of suzerains and vassals ; but the 
suzerain, with the partial exception of the highest, was also a 
vassal. Feudalism was thus a system in which lands were in 
the hands of the freemen who held of one another in a grada- 
tion. But in the Middle Ages, the privilege of hunting or 
fishing in particular places, and in fact almost every privilege 
that could be the subject of a grant, became a fief. 

Ecclesiastical Feudalism. — The clergy were included in the 
feudal system. The bishop was often made the count and, as 
such, was the suzerain of the nobles in his diocese. In France 



256 VASIONS OF THE NORTHMEN 

and in England in tlie Middle Ages, the feudal clergy pos- 
sessed one fifth of all the land, and in Germany one third. 
The Church constantly increased its possessions through be- 
quests of the dying and the gifts of the living. 

The Spread of Feudalism. — In the eleventh century, Europe 
was thus covered with a multitude of petty sovereignties. Below 
the rulers or the holders of fiefs were the serfs and the villains, 
who were a grade above the serfs ; the serfs differed from 
slaves only in being attached to the soil. The villains paid 
rent for the land which they were allowed to till, and there 
was a constant tendency on their part to sink into the inferior 
condition. Nevertheless, feudalism had more vitality than the 
system of absorbing all the land by a few great proprietors, 
which existed in the period of the decline of the Koman 
Empire. Among the feudal landowners, there' was a strong 
feeling of loyalty and a certain proud sense of belonging to an 
aristocratic order. Feudalism bore most heavily on the lower 
strata of society. The serf was in all things subject to the 
will of the suzerain. Without the permission of his lord, he 
could not change his abode, he could not marry, and he could 
not bequeath his goods. 



Mediakval Besieging Tower 



GENEALOGY OF THE EMPERORS 



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PEEIOD III— FROM THE ESTABLISHMEITT OF THE EOMANO- 
GERMANIO EMPIRE TO THE END OF THE CRUSADES 

(a.d. 962-1270) 

CHAPTER XL 

THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE: PREDOMINANCE OF THE 
EMPIRE : TO THE CRUSADES, a.d. 1096 

I. KixGs AND Emperors of the Saxox House (918-1024) 

Henry the Fowler (918-936). — When Duke Henry of Saxony 
was elected king of Germany, the envoys who carried the 
news to him found him in the Hartz INIountains with a falcon 
on his wrist. On account of this circumstance the title Henry 
the Eowler was given to him. He did much to make Germany 
a nation. He won back Lorraine, added the Netherlands to 
Germany, and united all the live great dukedoms. He was 
compelled to conclude a nine-years truce with the aggres- 
sive enemies of Germany, the Hungarians, paying tribute 
to them in the interval, but he was able to do much to 
strengthen the defenses of the kingdom, and to train and 
discipline his army. Later, having brought about a marriage 
between his son Otto and Editha, the daughter of Aethelstan, 
King of England, he felt himself strong enough to renew the 
struggle with them, and in 933 he completely vanquished them 
in battle. Henry was a wise and vigorous monarch, and may 
be said to have laid the foundations of the German Empire. 

Otto I. — Otto I. (936-973) had before him a difficult task to 
maintain the unit}' of the kingdom. He subdued the dukes 
of Bavaria and Eranconia, with Lorraine, who were helped by 

258 



THE SAXON HOUSE 259 

Louis IV., Duke of France. In many ways he strengthened 
his royal authority. He gained a decisive victory over the 
Hungarians at Augsburg in 955. The Slavonians and the 
Poles were also defeated by him. He carried his arms to 
the sea and gained an advantage over the Danish king, Harold 
the Bluetoothed. 

Turning his eyes to Italy, Otto found an excuse for direct- 
ing his victorious arms thither, in the romantic aj^peal of 
Adelheid, the young widow of Lothar. Lothar was the son 
of Hugh of Provence, and for a time had worn the title 
of King of Italy. Ever since Arnulf, the last Carolingian 
emperor who had any authority, left Italy (896), the country 
had been demoralized and in a condition of anarchy. Beren- 
gar II., who succeeded Lothar, tried to force Adelheid into an 
unwelcome marriage with his son, and had cast her into prison, 
but she escaped. In response to her appeal to Otto, •' that model 
of knightly virtue which was beginning to show itself after the 
fierce brutality of the last age," he descended into Italy, and 
himself married the injured queen. Having put down Beren- 
gar, Otto was first proclaimed King of the Lombards, and then, 
in 962, was crowned emperor with his queen in St. Peter's. 
Twice Otto descended upon Kome, to install in the Papacy 
Leo VIII. , and, when the latter was driven out by the Romans, 
to restore him to his office. In 966 Otto crushed the factions 
which had long degraded Rome and the Church. He arranged 
a marriage between the Greek princess Theophano and his son 
Otto. 

The emperor had taken Charlemagne for his model. He 
had succeeded in establishing the Holy Roman Empire of 
the German Nation. In theory it was the union of the world- 
state and the world-church — an undivided community under 
emperor and pope. As a political fact, it was the union of 
Germany and the Empire. Germany and Italy were united 
into one sovereignty, which was in the hands of the German 
king. The German king, when chosen, was entitled to receive 
at Milan the crown of Italy, and at Rome the imperial crown. 



260 THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE 

In Burgundy he had much influence, and finally control, and 
so had considerable power over the Karlings while they ruled 
at Laon. The French kingdom of Hugh Capet became distinct 
from the Empire. But Augustus Caesar and Charlemagne had 
new successors in the German line. 

Otto II. ; Otto III. ; Henry II. — Otto TI. (973-983) was 
highly gifted intellectually, but lacked his father's energy and 
decision. Henry the Quarrelsome, Duke of Bavaria, revolted, 
but was put down, and deprived of his duchy. Otto obliged 
Lothar, the West Frankish king, to give up his claim to Lotha- 
ringia, which he attempted to seize. Otto, in 980, went to Italy, 
and, in the effort to conquer southern Italy from the Greeks 
and Saracens, barely escaped with his life. This was in 982. 
He never returned to Germany. 

While Otto III. (983-1002) was a child, his mother, Theo- 
phano, was regent for a time in Germany, and his grand- 
mother, Adelheid, in Italy. The proficiency of young Otto 
in his studies caused him to be styled the Wonder of the 
World. He was crowned emperor in Rome in 996, when he 
was only sixteen years old. He dreamed of making Rome 
once more the center of the world, for his interest was chiefly 
in Italy. But his schemes were ended by his early death. 
At that time and afterwards, it may be here remarked, there 
was deep agitation in Europe, owing to a general expectation 
that before long the world would come to an end. For this 
reason pilgrims flocked to Rome. 

Henry II. (1002-1024), as nearest of kin to the Saxon house, 
was the next emperor. Besides waging war with his own in- 
surgent lieges, he had to carry on a contest for fourteen years 
w^ith Boleslav, King of Poland, who was forced to give up Bohe- 
mia and Meissen. From this time the German kings, before 
their coronation as emperors, took the title of King of the 
Romans. The highest nobles were styled Princes. The nobles 
lived in the castles, which were built for strongholds, as the 
power of the lords grew and private wars became more com- 
mon. 



FRANCONIAN EMPERORS 261 

II. The Fraxconian or Saliax Emperors (1024-1125) 

Conrad II.; Burgundy; the Poles. — At Oppenheim on the 
Rhine, Conrad, a Franconian nobleman (Conrad IL), was elected 
emperor (1024-1039). He was descended from the daughter 
of Otto I. Eudolph, king of Burgundy, when dying, appointed 
Conrad his successor, so that now that kingdom was attached 
to Germany. At a later time, the Romance or non-German 
portions were absorbed by France. The duchy of Burgundy, 
however, was a fief of the French king, and was not included 
in the kingdom. The Poles were repelled by Conrad, and 
their leader, Miesko, was obliged to do homage for his crown. 

Henry III.: the Truce of God.— With Henry III. (1039-1056) 
the imperial power reached its height. He was for a time duke 
of Bavaria, Swabia, and Franconia, as well as emperor. In 
Hungary he conquered the enemies of Peter, the king, and re- 
stored him to the throne, receiving his homage as vassal of the 
Empire. He had great success in putting down private war. 
In 1043 he proclaimed a general peace in his kingdom. He 
favored the attempt to bring in the Truce of God. This origi- 
nated in Aquitaine, where the bishops, in 1041, ordered that no 
private feuds should be prosecuted between sunset of Wednes- 
day and sunrise of Monday, the period covered by the most 
sacred events in the life of Jesus. This truce, which was 
afterwards extended to embrace certain other holy seasons 
and festivals, spread from land to land. It shows the influ- 
ence of Christianity in those dark and troublous times. 
Although it was imperfectly carried out, it was most beneficent 
in its influence, and specially welcome to the classes not capa- 
ble of defending themselves against violence. 

Synod of Sutri. — In 1046 Henry III. was called into Italy 
by the well-disposed of all parties, to put an end to the reign 
of vice and disorder at Rome. He caused the three rival popes 
to be deposed by a synod at Sutri, and a German prelate, Suid- 
ger, Bishop of Bamberg, to be appointed under the name of 
Clement II., by whom he was crowned emperor. After Clem- 



262 THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE 

ent died, Henry raised to the papacy three German popes in 
succession. While in the full exercise of his great authority, 
and when he was not quite forty years of age, he died. 

Henry IV. ; His Contests in Germany.— Henry IV. (1056-1106) 
had been crowned king at the age of four. Being but six years 
old at his father's death he was carried off by Hanno, Arch- 
bishop of Cologne, who assumed the guardianship over him. 
Henry was obliged to marry Bertha, the daughter of the mar- 
grave of Turin. He at first disliked her and sought a divorce, 
but her patience eventually softened him, and she became a 
cherished wife. The new emperor followed in the footsteps of 
his father in reducing the princes to submission. He was a 
wilful man of violent passions. The Saxons revolted, and he 
suppressed them Avith the utmost harshness. He thought to 
exercise that sovereignty over Church and State which his 
father had wielded, but he found himself confronted by a new 
and powerful antagonist, the celebrated Pope Hildebrand, or 
Gregory VII. (1073-1085). 

Hildebrand: Investitures The state of affairs in the Koman 

Church had called into existence a party of reform, the life 
and soul of which was Hildebrand. He was the son of a car- 
penter of Soano, a small town in Tuscany, and was born in 
1018. He was educated in a monastery in Home, and spent 
some time in France, in the great monastery of Cluny. He 
became the influential adviser of the popes who immediately 
preceded him. The great aim of Hildebrand and of his sup- 
porters was to abolish simony and the marriage of priests. By 
simony was meant the purchase of beneiiees, which had come 
to prevail in the different countries. The old Church laws 
requiring celibacy had been disregarded, and great numbers of 
the inferior clergy were living with their wives. In Hilde- 
brand's view, there could be no purity and no just discipline 
in the Church without a strict enforcement of the neglected 
rule. The priests must put away their wives. 

Connected with these reforms was the broader design of 
wholly emancipating the Church from the control of the 



HILDE BRAND AND HENRY IV. 263 

secular power, and of subordinating the State to the Church. 
For this end there must be an abolition of investiture by lay 
hands. This demand it was that kindled a prolonged and ter- 
rible controversy between the emperors and the popes. The 
great ecclesiastics had temporal estates and a temporal juris- 
diction, which placed them in a feudal relation, and made them 
powerful subjects. It Avas the custom of the kings to invest 
them with these temporalities by giving to them the ring and 
the staff. This enabled the kings to keep out of the benefices 
persons not acceptable to them, who might be elected by the 
clergy. On the other hand, it was complained that this custom 
put the bishops and other high ecclesiastics into a relation of 
dependence on the lay authority ; and, moreover, that, the ring 
and staff being badges of a spiritual function, it was sacrile- 
gious for a layman to bestow them. 

Contest between Hildebrand and Henry IV. — Hildebrand had 
at first welcomed the intervention of Henry III. and even of 
Henry IV. as a means of putting a stop to the lawlessness at 
Eome. Afterwards, however, he began to give practical effect 
to his leading ideas. He caused the formation of a popular 
party in favor of the enforced celibacy of the clergy. He for- 
bade princes to invest with any spiritual office. Henry IV. was 
one of the worst offenders in the matter of simony. The Pope 
summoned him to Home to answer to the charges made against 
him, and when Henry addressed to him a letter filled with 
denunciation, the Pope excommunicated him, deposed him, and 
declared his subjects free from their obligation to obey him. 
The discontented German princes sided with the Pope, and 
held an assembly in 1076. They invited him to come to 
Augsburg and to judge in the case of Henry. He was to live 
as a private man, and was to cease to be king altogether if he 
remained excommunicate for a year. In the midst of winter, 
with his wife and child and a few attendants, the emperor 
crossed the Alps, and humbly presented himself as a penitent 
to Gregory, who on his way to Augsburg had arrived at the 
castle of Canossa. It is said that the Pope kept him waiting 



264 THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE 

a long while barefoot and bareheaded in the courtyard. Fin- 
ally he was admitted, and absolved, but only on the condition 
that the Pope was to adjust the matters in dispute between 
the emperor and his subjects. The fiery spirit of Henry soon 
rebounded from this depth of humiliation. He was joined 
by the Lombards, with whom Gregory was unpoj^ular, but a 
majority of the German princes adhered to the Pope, and 
they elected Rudolph of Swabia in 1077. 

Rudolph was killed in battle. Henry invaded Italy in 1084, 
and captured Rome. Gregory was besieged in the castle of 
St. Angelo, but he was liberated by Robert Guiscard, the 
Gorman Duke of lower Italy. The great pontiff died at Sal- 
erno on May 25, 1085, having uttered when near his end the 
words which are inscribed on his tomb : '• I have loved right- 
eousness, and hated iniquity ; therefore do I die in exile." Of 
the rectitude of his intentions there is no room for doubt, 
whatever view is taken of the expediency of his measures. 

Last Days of Henry IV. — In 1085 Henry IV. returned to 
Germany, having been crowned emperor by the Pope whom 
his party had created, Clement III. The Saxons were tired 
of strife ; and, on the assurance that their ancient privileges 
should be restored, they were pacified. Hermann of Luxem- 
burg, whom they had recognized as their king, had resigned 
the crown. The last days of Henry were clouded by the re- 
bellion of his sons, first of Conrad, and then of Henry, who 
was supported by the Pope, Paschal 11. In 1106, w^hile still 
at war with his son, Henr}^ died. His body was placed in a 
stone coffin, where it lay in an unconsecrated chapel, at Spires, 
until the removal of the excommunication. 

Concordat of Worms. — Henry V. (1106-1125) was not in the 
least disposed to yield up the right of investiture. Hence he 
was soon engaged in a controversy with Paschal II. Henry 
went to Rome with an army in 1110, and obliged the Pope to 
crown him emperor and to concede to him the right in ques- 
tion. But this only began a contest in which the pontiff was 
supported by the German princes. The emperor's authority, 



CULTURE IX THE ELEVENTH CENTURY 265 

which was established in the south by means of his powerful 
supporters, was not secured in the north ; but during the 
last three years of his life he was at peace with the Church. 
By the Concordat of Worms, in 1122, it was agreed that inves- 
titure should take place in the presence of the emperor or of 
his deputies ; that the emperor should first invest with the 
scepter, and then consecration should take place by the Church, 
with the bestowal of the ring and staff. All holders of secu- 
lar benefices were to perform feudal obligations. 

Lothar of Saxony. — The princes, over whom Henry Y. had 
exercised a severe control, opposed the elevation of Frederick 
of Hohenstaufen, the son of his sister Agnes. At a brilliant 
assembly at Mainz, Lothar of Saxony was chosen emperor 
(1125-1137). He allowed all the Pope's claims, and was 
crowned at Kome by Innocent II., accepting the allodial — that 
is, freehold — possessions of Matilda of Tuscany as a fief 
from the pontiff. He carried on a war with the Hohenstaufen 
princes, Frederick of Swabia and his brother Conrad, who 
finally yielded. Lothar was helped in the conflict by Henry 
the Proud, the Duke of Bavaria, who also became Duke of 
Saxony. Germany under Lothar extended its influence in the 
north and east. 

Culture in the Eleventh Century. — The tenth century, owing 
to causes which have been explained, was a dark age. In 
the eleventh century circumstances were more favorable for 
culture. Under the Saxon emperors, intercourse was renewed 
with the Greek Empire. There was some intercourse v/ith 
the Arabs in Spain, among whom several of the sciences were 
cultivated, especially mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. 
The study of the Pom an law was revived in the Lombard cities. 
The restoration of order in the Church, after the Synod of 
Sutri (1046), had likewise a wholesome influence in respect to 
culture. There were several schools of high repute in Prance, 
especially those at Pheims, Chartres, Tours, and in the monas- 
tery of Bee, in Normandy, where Lanfranc, an Italian by birth, 
a man of wisdom and piety, was the abbot. 



CHAPTER XLI 

THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE ; PREDOMINANCE OF THE 
CHURCH: TO THE END OF THE CRUSADES, a.d. 1270 

The Greek Empire. — The Greek Christian Empire lived on, a 
spiritless body. On the one hand it was bounded by the king- 
dom of the Arabs, and on the other by the Christian peoples 
of the west. Theological disputes between the Church of the 
West and the Church of the East led to the formal separation 
of the two in 1054, when the legate of the Pope laid on the 
altar of the Church of St. Sophia at Constantinople an ana- 
thema against the '•' seven mortal heresies " of the Greeks. 

The tenacity of life in the empire was surprising, in view of 
the languishing existence that it led. The Macedonian dynasty, 
to which that of the Comneni succeeded (1057), was forced to 
combat with the Turks, who had now made themselves masters 
of Asia. In the tenth century the attacks of the Eussians had 
been repelled, and in 1019, Basil II. had overthrown the king- 
dom of the Bulgarians ; but the Turks were the most dan- 
gerous enemies that had as yet threatened the empire, and 
Alexius I. (1081) appealed to the Germans for help. This 
had some influence in giving rise to the first of the Crusades. 
The Crusades were a new chapter in the long warfare of Chris- 
tianity with Mohammedanism. " In the Middle Ages, there 
were two worlds utterly distinct, — that of the Gospel and 
that of the Koran." The followers of Mohammed had been 
divided into various families or nations. In the eleventh cen- 
tury the Seljukian Turks founded an extensive empire. In 
1071, the Turks gained a great victory, and took captive the 
Emperor Romanus. Asia Minor was wrested from the Greeks, 

266 



PILGKIMAGES TO JERUSALEM 



267 



and one of their leaders, Malek Shah, invaded Syria, Palestine, 
and Jerusalem, and carried his arms as far as Egypt. Upon 
his death three distinct sultanates were formed, — Persia, 
Syria, and Kerman. 

The Pilgrims to Jerusalem. — The immediate occasion of the 
Crusades was the hard treatment of the Christian pilgrims 
who visited the sepulcher of Christ in Jerusalem. There the 







Church of the Holy Sepulcher 



Empress Helena, the mother of Constantine, had erected a 
Christian church. Of the present church, which was begun 
in 1103, the eastern dome, the apse, and the outer galler}^ are 
substantially the work of the crusaders. Pilgrimages — which 
had become more and more a custom since the fourth century 
— naturally tended to the sacred places in Palestine. A path 
was opened for pilgrims along the valley of the Danube by the 
coming of Hungary into connection with the Church of E-ome, 



268 THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE 

and by the gift from the Pope of a royal crown to the Dnke, 
Stephen (1000). In 1064 a great pilgrimage, in which seven 
thousand persons, priests and laity, of all nations, were in- 
cluded, under Siegfried, Archbishop of Mainz, made its way 
through Hungary to Syria. Not more than a third of them 
lived to return. The reports of returning pilgrims were lis- 
tened to with absorbing interest, as they tokl of the spots to 
which the imagination of the people was constantly directed. 
What indignation then was kindled by tlie pathetic narrative 
of the insults which they had endured from the infidels who 
profaned the holy places with their hateful and cruel domina- 
tion ! In the ninth century, under caliphs of the temper of 
Haroun-al-Kaschid, Christians had been well treated. About 
the middle of the tenth century the Fatimite caliphs of Egypt 
were the rulers at Jerusalem. Hakem was fierce in his perse- 
cution, but his successors were more tolerant. But when the 
Seljukian Turks got control there, the harassed pilgrims had 
constant occasion to complain of insult and inhumanity. 

The Call of the Greeks The Greek emperor, Alexius Com- 

nenus, threatened l)y the Mussulmans on the opposite bank of 
the Bosporus, sent his call for succor to all Christian courts. 
Two popes, Sylvester II. and Gregory YIL, had in vain ex- 
horted the princes to rise in their might, to do away with the 
wrong and the shame which the disciples of Jesus Avere suffer- 
ing at the hands of his enemies. 

Motives to the Crusades. — After this, only a spark was needed 
to kindle in the Western nations a flame of enthusiasm. It 
was an advantage that the Mohammedans were divided and 
ruled by several sultans. The summons to a crusade appealed 
to the two most powerful sentiments then prevalent, — the 
sentiment of religion and that of chivalry. The response made 
by faith and reverence was reenforced by that thirst for a 
martial career and for knightly exploits which burned as a 
passion in the hearts of men. The peoples in the countries 
foruied by the Germanic conquests were full of vigor and life. 
Outside of the Church there was no employment to attract 



MOTIVES TO THE CRUSADES 



269 



aspiring youth but the employment of a soldier. Western 
Europe was covered with a network of petty sovereignties. 
Feudal conflicts, while they were a discipline of strength and 
valor, were a narrow field for all this pent-up energy. There 
was a latent yearning for a wider horizon, a broader theater 
of action. Thus the Crusades profoundly interested all classes. 
The Church and the clergy, the lower orders, the women and 
the children, shared to the full in the religious enthusiasm, 
which, in the case of princes and nobles, took the form of an 




CONFERKING KNIGHTHOOD ON THE FlELD OF BATTLE 

{From a manuscript of the Fifteenth Century) 

intense desire to engage personally in the holy war, in 
to crush the infidels, and at the same time to signalizf 
selves by gallant feats of arms. There was no surer'' 
salvation. There was, moreover, a hope, of which r 
tressed circumstances partook, of improving their te" 
The Council of Clermont. — Pope Urban II. authc 
the Hermit, an enthusiast of Amiens, to stir up ^^ea 
the great undertaking of delivering the Holy Sep 
an emaciated countenance and flashing eye, hip 
feet naked, and wearing a coarse garment bor 



habeli 




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to the two ^ 
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by faith and %. ^ 
martial career . 
passion in the hi """^v 
formed by the Gei 
Outside of the Chi 



272 



THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE 



of cords, he told a burning tale of the Avrongs endured by the 
pilgrims. At the great Council of Clermont in 1095, the Pope 
himself addressed the assembly, and urged all to enlist in the 
sacred enterprise. Thousands knelt and received the red 
cross of cloth or silk, which was fastened on the shoulder, — 
which, being the badge of all who took up arms, gained for 
them the name of crusaders. The farmer left his plow, and 
the shepherd his flock. A disorderly host, poorly armed and 
ill provided, which included Avomen as well as men, started for 
Constantinople by way of Germany and Hungary, led by Peter 
the Hermit and Walter the Penniless, a French knight. Of 
two hundred thousand, it is said that only seven thousand 
reached Constantinople. Even these per- 
ished in Asia Minor, and the next crusad- 
ing expedition found their bones on the 
plains of Nicea. 

First Crusade (1096-1099). — One of the 
divisions of the first regular armies of 
soldiers of the cross advanced toward the 
Holy Land under brave and noble Godfrey 
of Bouillon, Duke of Lower Lorraine, and 
his brothers P>aldwin and Eustace. Other 
divisions were likewise under the com- 
mand of renowned leaders, such as Ray- 
mond, Count of Toulouse, and Tancred, 
Robert Guiscard's nephew. Most of these 
first crusaders spoke French, and since 
their time, in the East, the inhabitants of 
western Europe have been called Franks. 
Alexius, the Eastern emperor, was more 
alarmed than gratified at seeing the swarm 
of warriors which had come into his land. 
Nicea surrendered after a siege of seven weeks, and at Dory- 
laeum the Turks were defeated in a desperate battle. Antioch 
was captured, and a great army of Turks under the Sultan, 
Kerboga, was vanquished near the city. 




A Knight of the First 

Crusade 

{From a manui^crlpl in 

the Btitish Museum) 



FIRST CRUSADE 273 

When the crusaders first caught a glimpse of the Holy City, 
they fell on their knees, and with tears of joy broke out in 
hymns of praise to God. After a siege of thirty days, Jerusa- 
lem was taken by storm (July 15, 1099), and the infuriated 
conquerors slew ten thousand Saracens and burned the Jews 
in the synagogues to which they had fled. Under the in- 
fluence of a reaction of feeling, they cast their arms aside, 
and with bared heads and barefoot, entered into the church 
of the Holy Sepulcher, and on their bended knees thanked 
God for their success. Godfrey of Bouillon was chosen ruler 
of the city. Kef using to v/ear a royal crown where the 
Savior had worn a crown of thorns, he designated himself 
protector of the Holy Sepulcher. At Ascalon he won a great 
victory against the vast Egyptian forces of the Sultan. In 
the next year (1100) he died, and was succeeded by his brother 
Baldwin, who first took the title of King of Jerusalem. 

The new kingdom, organized according to the method of feu- 
dalism, was difficult to defend on account of the attacks of the 
Moslems and the almost incessant strifes among the crusaders 
themselves. It endured until the capture of Jerusalem by 
Saladin in 1187. 

The principal supporters of the kingdom at Jerusalem were 
the orders of knights, who added to the monastic vows of 
poverty, chastity, and obedience, a fourth vow which bound 
them to fight the infidels, and to protect the pilgrims. The 
two principal orders were the Knights of St. John, or the 
Hospitallers, and the Knights Templar. After the loss of 
the Holy Land, the Hospitallers held the Island of Rhodes 
until 1522, when they were driven out by the Turks, and re- 
ceived from Charles V. the island of Malta. The Templars 
took up their abode in Cyprus, and from there many of them 
went to France. In time, as they had become possessed of 
immense wealth by presents and legacies, a desire to get their 
property caused Philip V. to lend a ready ear to accusations of 
unbelief and blasphemy made against them, and in the begin- 
ning of the fourteenth century the order was suppressed. 



A 



274 THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE 

III. The Hohexstaufex Emperors (1137-1250) 

Welfs and Waiblings ; the Hohenstaufen Line. — Conrad III. 
(1137-1152), of the house of Hohenstaufen, was chosen to suc- 
ceed Lothar, who died on a journey back from Italy in 1137. 
Henry the Proud, of the house of Welf, who inherited Saxony 
and all the domains of Lothar, hesitated to recognize Conrad 
as emperor, and war ensued. Henry died, leaving a young son 
known later as Henry the Lion. Count Welf, the brother of 
Henry the Proud, kept up the war in Bavaria, the dukedom of 
his family. He was besieged in Weinsberg. During the siege, 
it is said that his followers shouted " Welf " as a war-cry, while 
the besiegers shouted ''Waiblings," — Waiblingen being the 
birthplace of Frederick, Duke of Swabia, brother of Conrad. 
These names, corrupted into Guelj)!! and Ghibelline by the 
Italians, were afterwards attached to the two great parties, — 
the supporters, respectively, of the pojjes and the emperors. 



GENEALOGY OF THE WELFS 

Welf, Duke of Bavaria, lUTO-1101. 

I 

Henry the Black, Duke of Bavaria, 1120-1126. 



I I 
Judith, in. Frederick. Duke Henry the Proud, Duke of Bavaria, 1126; of Saxony, 1137; 
of Swabia (d. 1147), the deprived, 113S. 

son of Agnes, who was 

thf daughter of Henry ' 1 

I V. Frederic I. ^ Bar- „ i ^ , . 

baro^sa) was the son of Henry the Lion, 

Judith and this Frederic '"■ Matilda, daughter of Henry II. of England. 

of Swabia. The Swabian ! 

dukes were called Ilohen- 



6^////('«.v. from a castle on i I 

Mount Staufen in Wiir- Henry the Young, d. Vli~. Otto IV., d. 121S. 

tern berg. 



Second Crusade (1147-1149). — The saintly life and moving elo- 
quence of St. Bernard, the greatest preacher of the age, enabled 
him to set on foot the Second Crusade. Louis YII. in France 



FREDERICK BARBAROSSA 275 

and Conrad III. were the leaders. The expedition was unfor- 
tunate, however. The siege of Damascus failed, and although 
not far from Ascalon the crusaders gained a victory over the 
Saracen leader Saladin, they were afterwards overthrown in 
"the fatal battle of Tiberias, and the victorious Mussulman en- 
tered Jerusalem in 1187. He was much more humane in the 
hour of success than the Christian w^arriors had been in like 
circumstances. 

Frederick Barbarossa. — Among the crusaders in the Holy 
Land was a man of great strength of understanding and of 
capacity for large undertakings, combined with a taste for 
letters and art. This was Frederick I., — Barbarossa, or 
Eedbeard, as he was called in Italy, — who at the age of thirty- 
one was elected emperor. He bent all his energies toward 
the restoration of the strength and dignity which had be- 
longed to the Empire under the Saxon and Franconian em- 
perors. He put dow^n private war, and restored public 
order. To his half-brother Conrad he gave the palatinate 
on the E^hine, and in 1155 Conrad founded Heidelberg. In 
1158 Frederick crossed the Alps, bent on establishing the 
imperial jurisdiction as it had stood in the days of Charlemagne. 
Milan, which had at first submitted, afterwards revolted, 
but surrendered after a siege of tw^o years. In 1159 Alexan- 
der III. w^as elected Pope by the cardinals, but the imperial 
party set up Victor IV., and on his death Paschal HI., w^ho was 
conducted to Eome by Frederick on the occasion of his fourth 
visit to Italy (1166-1168). The Lombard League of northern 
cities built and strongly fortified Alessandria, taking posses- 
sion of the passes of the Alps, so that the emperor escaped to. 
Germany with no little difficulty and danger. His Italian 
enterprise w^as defeated in the battle of Legano (1176). He 
was convinced that his effort to break down the resistance of 
a free people was destined to be futile, and a reconciliation 
between emperor and pope took place at Venice in 1177. It 
was a day of triumph for the Papacy. At Constance in 1183 
a treaty was made in which the right of the Lombard cities to 



^ 



276 THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE 

self-government was substantially conceded. The cities grew 
stronger from their newly gained freedom ; but the loss of 
imperial restraint was on some occasions an evil. 

Frederick in Germany. — After his return to Germany, Fred- 
erick deprived Henry the Lion, who had refused to support 
him in Italy, of his lands ; and when Henry craved his 
forgiveness at the Diet of Erfurt in 1181, he was allowed 
to retain Brunswick and LiUieburg. He was to live for three 
years, Avith his wife and child, at the court of his father- 
in-law, Henry II., King of England. His son William, born 
there, is the ancestor of the present royal family in England, 
In a last and peaceful visit to Italy, Frederick's son Henry 
was married to Constance, the daughter of Roger IL, and the 
heiress of the ISTorman kingdom of Lower Italy and Sicily. 

Third Crusade (1189-1192). — The old emperor now undertook 
another crusade, in which he was supported by Philip IL (Philip 
Augustus), King of France, and Richard the Lion-Hearted, 
(Coeur-de-Lion), King of England. After a winter at Adriano- 
ople, Frederick advanced through Asia Minor, showing a mili- 
tary skill and a valor which made the expedition memorable. 
At the river Calycadnus, in Cilicia, however, either while 
bathing or attempting to cross on horseback, the old warrior 
was swept away by the stream and drowned. Frederick, his 
son, died during the siege of Acre, which, however, surrendered 
to Richard and Philip in 1191. These two leaders quarreled, 
and Philip returned to France. Nothing was accomplished, 
except the establishment of a truce with Saladin, by which a 
strip of land on the coast from Joppa to Acre was given to the 
Christians, and pilgrimages to the holy places were allowed. 
Richard was distinguished both for his deeds of arms and for 
his cruelty. On his return, he was kept as a prisoner by 
Leopold, Duke of Austria, by the direction of the emperor, 
Henry VI., for thirteen months, and released on the payment 
of a rai^soni and rendering homage. He was charged with 
treading tlic (German banner in the filth at Acre. His alliance 
with the Wclfs in Germany is enough to explain the hostility 



FOURTH CRUSADE 277 

felt towards him by the imperial party. He was the brother- 
in-law of Henry the Lion. 

Henry VI. ; Pope Innocent III. — Henry VI. (1190-1197) had 
the prudence and vigor of his father, but lacked his magna- 
nimity. He was hard and stern in his temper. Twice he 
visited Italy to conquer the kingdom of Sicily, the inherit- 
ance of his wife. The Korman kingdom disappeared, and 
Sicily was united to the Empire. It was a project of the 
emperor to convert Germany and Italy, with Sicily, into a 
hereditary monarchy ; but the princes would not consent. He 
aspired to incorporate the Eastern Empire in the same domin- 
ion. While engaged in strife with the aged Pope, Coelestin II., 
respecting the Tuscan lands of Matilda, which she had be- 
queathed to the Church, the emperor suddenly died. His son 
Erederick was a boy only three years old. On the death of 
Coelestin II., early in 1198, Innocent III., the ablest and most 
powerful of all the popes, acceded to the pontifical chair. In- 
nocent was a statesman of unsurpassed sagacity and energy. 
He was imbued with the highest idea of the papal dignity. 
He made his authority felt and feared in all parts of Chris- 
tendom. He exacted submission from all rulers, civil and eccle- 
siastical. The Empress Constance, in order to secure Italy for 
Frederick, accepted the papal investment on conditions dic- 
tated by the Pope. After her death Innocent ruled Italy in 
the character of guardian of her son. He dislodged the im- 
perial vassals from the Tuscan territory of Matilda, and thus 
became a second founder of the papal state. 

Fourth Crusade (1202-1204). — Under the ausjjices of Inno- 
cent III., a crusade was undertaken by French barons, and by 
Baldwin, Count of Flanders* and Boniface, Marquis of Montfer- 
rat. The crusaders were unable to furnish to the Venetians 
the sum which had been agreed to be paid for their transpor- 
tation. The Venetians, under their crafty old doge, Henry 
Dandolo, persuaded them to assist in the capture of Zara, 
which the Hungarians had wrested from Venice. Then, at the 
call of Alexius, son of the Eastern emperor, Isaac Angelus, they 



278 THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE 

went with the Venetian fleet to Constantinople, and after hav- 
ing restored these princes to the throne, they fell into disputes 
with the Greeks and ended by pillaging Constantinople, and 
establishing the Latin empire under Baldwin. The Latin do- 
minion endured until 1261, w^hen Michael Palaeologus, who had 
become the head of a Greek empire which had been estab- 
lished at Nicea, put an end to its existence. 

Children's Crusade. — In 1212, between the fourth and the 
fifth crusades, moved by the belief that these great expedi- 
tions had been suffered by the Almighty to fail as a punish- 
ment for the vices which stained the lives of jnany of the 
crusaders, many thousands of French and German boys made 
their way in two distinct expeditions to Marseilles and the sea- 
ports of Italy in order to be conveyed thence to the Holy Land. 
Li France the leader was a lad, whose preaching stirred up an 
intense excitement. The companies gathered were joined by a 
swarm of older enthusiasts. This was the celebrated Children's 
Crusade, which shows both the zeal and the indiscretion of the 
times. It grew out of a strange construction of the injunction 
of the Lord, that little children should be suffered to come 
unto him, and of an equally wild interpretation of other texts. 
Few of them returned ; nearly all perished by the way, or 
were seized and carried off to slave-markets. 

Otto IV. ; Civil War in Germany. — Frederick had been elected 
king ; but, on the death of his father, his claims were disre- 
garded. There was a contest for the crown between his uncle, 
Philip of Swabia, and Otto of Saxony, chosen by the Welfs. 
Innocent claimed the right, not to appoint the emperor, but to 
decide between the rival claimants. He decided, in 1201, in 
favor of Otto IV. (1198-1214), but it was not until after the 
murder of Philip (1208) that Otto, having made large promises 
of submission to the Pope's demands, was crowned emperor 
and universally acknowledged. When he failed to fulfil his 
pledges, and began to assert the old imperial prerogatives 
in Italy, he was excommunicated and deposed by Innocent 
(1210). 



FIFTH CRUSADE 279 

Frederick II. made King. — Innocent was now led to take 
up the cause of young Frederick (1212). The latter won Ger- 
many over to his side, and received the German crown at Aix- 
la-Chapelle in 1215. 

Character of Frederick II. (1214-1250). — Frederick II., on ac- 
count of his extraordinary natural gifts and his accomplish- 
ments, like Otto III. was likewise- called the AYonder of the 
World. He knew several languages, and, in intercourse with 
the Saracens in Sicily, had acquired a familiarity with the 
sciences. In many of his ideas of government he was in 
advance of his time. But his reign was largely spent in con- 
test with the Lombard cities and with the popes. He is styled 
by an eminent modern historian, '^ the gay, the brave, the wise, 
the ~ relentless, and the godless Frederick." He was often 
charged with skepticism in relation to the doctrines of the 
Church. The main ground of this imputation seems to have 
been a temper of mind at variance with the habit of the age, — ■ 
a very moderate degree of reverence for ecclesiastical authority, 
and the absence of the prevalent antipathy to heresy and reli- 
gious dissent. 

Fifth Crusade (1228-1229). — Having caused his son Henry 
to be elected King of Kome, Frederick, in 1220, left Germany 
for fifteen years. It was the policy of the popes to keep the 
Sicilian crown from being united with the Empire and the em- 
peror from gaining the supremacy in Lombardy. Frederick, 
at his coronation at Aix, and afterwards, had engaged to un- 
dertake a crusade. But he had postponed it from time to time. 
Pope Honorius III. had patiently borne with this delay. But 
when Frederick, in 1227, was about to start, and was prevented, 
as he professed, by a contagious disease in his army, from 
which he himself was suffering, Gregory IX., the next Pope, 
placed him under the ban of the Church. Nevertheless, the 
emperor, in the following year, embarked on his crusade. His 
vigor as a soldier and, still more, his tact in conciliating the 
Saracens enabled him to get possession of Jerusalem. ZSTo 
bishop would crown an excommunicate, and he had to put the 



280 THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE 

crown on his own head. That he left a mosque unmolested 
was a fresh ground of reproach. He negotiated an armistice 
with the Sultan, Kameel (El Kamil), who ceded Nazareth and 
a strip of territory reaching to the coast, together with Sidon. 
Fifteen years later (in 1244) Jerusalem was finally lost by the 
Christians. 

The Later Career of Frederick. — After his return to Italy, 
Frederick displayed his talent for organization in all parts of 
his empire. His constitution for the Sicilian kingdom, based 
on the ruins of the old feudalism, is tinged with the modern 
political spirit. His court, wherever he sojourned, mingled 
an almost Oriental luxury and splendor with the attractions 
of poetry and song. But his efforts to enforce the imperial 
supremacy over the Lombard cities were met with the same 
stubborn resistance from the Guelfs which his grandfather 
had encountered. In 1237 he gained a brilliant victory over 
them. He carried forward continued contests with the popes 
and Innocent IV., and was several times excommunicated by 
them. Innocent IV. (1243-1254) declared him deposed, and 
summoned the Germans to elect another emperor in his place. 
The ecclesiastical princes in Germany chose two emperors in 
succession, but Frederick kept up his supremacy. 

During this period of civil war, many German cities gained 
their freedom from episcopal rule, attained to great privileges, 
and came into an immediate relation to the emperor. A fear- 
ful war raged in Italy between the Guelfs and Ghibellines, in 
the midst of which Frederick died, in the fifty-sixth year of 
his age. Had he been as conscientious and as capable of curb- 
ing his passions and appetites as he was highly endowed in 
other respects, he might have been a model ruler. As it was, 
although his career was splendid, his private life, as well as 
his public conduct, was stained with flagrant faults. 

The Sicilian Kingdom. — The hereditary kingdom of the Two 
Sicilies was bravely defended by Manfred, son of Frederick 
II., in behalf of young Conradin. The Pope gave the crown 
to Charles of Anjou, brother of Louis IX. of France, and he 



spAm 281 

at length gained the kingdom. Conradin went to Italy, but 
was defeated and captured in 1268, and was executed at Naples. 
Such was the tragic end of the last of the Hohenstaufens. The 
unbearable tyranny of the French led to a conspiracy called the 
Sicilian Vespers (1282) ; and on Easter Monday, at vesper time, 
the rising took place. All the French in Sicily were massacred. 
Peter of Aragon, who had married the daughter of Manfred, 
became king of Sicily. The dominion of Charles of Anjou was 
restricted to Naples. This separation of Naples, under the 
house of Anjou, as a distinct kingdom from Sicily, gave rise to 
the expression "the two Sicilies " (1288). 

Spain. — For eight hundred years the Spaniards carried for- 
ward in their own land a crusade against the Moors, who had 
established a brilliant civilization within their borders. In the 
time of Abderrahman III. (912-961) there were six hundred 
mosques in Cordova, and there were said to be seventeen uni- 
versities and seventy large libraries in Spain. In the eleventh 
century, however, the caliphs gave themselves up to luxury, 
and the control of their forces was in the hands of viziers, of 
whom Almanzor"v/as the most famous. The caliphate of Cor- 
dova broke up into numerous kingdoms ; Christian Spain was 
united under Sancho the Great (970-1035). To one of his 
sons, Ferdinand I., he left Castile, to which Leon and the 
Asturias were united. To another he left Aragon ; and to a 
third Navarre and Biscay. It was under Ferdinand that the 
exploits of the Spanish hero, the Cid (Kodrigo Diaz of Bivar), 
in conflict with the infidels, began. The complete conquest of 
the Moors was prevented by the strife of the Christian king- 
doms, but the latter were all once more united under Alfonso 
VI. There were internal dissensions among the Mussulmans 
as well as among the Christians, and to this fact may in part 
be ascribed the decisive victory of the kings of Castile, Leon, 
and Navarre, aided by sixty thousand crusaders from Ger- 
many, France, and Italy, over Mohammed, the ckief of the 
Almohads, in the battle of Tolosa (1212). These had come 
over into Spain in the twelfth century. The Spanish Crusade 



282 



THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE 



built up the little kingdom of Portugal, aud the states of 
Castile and of Aragon. After the battle of Tolosa the Mo- 
hammedan jjower steadily declined until nothing was left of 
it but the kingdom of Granada. 




>r'.-oI K OF C'.KIXJVA 



The Mongolian Invasions. — At the beginning of the thir- 
teenth centur3% Genghis Khan, the leader of ^Mongolian or 
Tartar hordes which roamed over the Asiatic plateau between 
China and Siberia, conquered China, and overthrew the ruling 



END or THE CEUSADES 283 

dynasty. He spread his power frora the Caspian Sea through 
Persia to India (1218). Populous cities were burned with all 
their treasures by these ruthless invaders. Libraries were 
converted into stalls for the horses of the brutal conquerors. 
The sons and successors of G-enghis Khan swept over the coun- 
tries north of the Black Sea, captured Moscow and Kiev, burned 
Cracow, and pursued their murderous and devastating path over 
Poland and Hungary. At the battle of Wahlstatt (1241) the 
Germans were defeated. The victories of the Tartars were 
frightful massacres. It was a custom of the Mongols to cut 
off an ear of the slaughtered enemy, and it was said that at 
Liegnitz these trophies filled nine sacks. The Mongol hosts 
retired from Europe. They attacked the caliphate of Bagdad, 
a city which they took by storm, and plundered for forty days. 
They destroyed the dynasty of the Abassides. They marched 
into Syria, stormed and sacked Aleppo, and captured Damas- 
cus. For a time the central point of the Tartar conquests was 
the city or camping-ground of Karalorum in central Asia. 
After a few generations their empire was broken in pieces. 
The Golden Horde, which they had planted in Eussia, on 
the east of the Volga, remained there for two centuries. Bag- 
dad was. held by the Mongols until 1400, when it was con- 
quered, and kept for a short time, by Tamerlane. 

The religion of the Tartars was either Lamaism — a cor- 
rupted form of the Buddhistic belief and worship — or Mo- 
hammedanism. In China and Mongolia they Avere Lamaists : 
elsewhere they generally adopted the faith of Islam. Their 
original religion was Shamaism, a worship of the spirits, akin 
to fetichism. 

The End of the Crusades. — The last two Crusades — the sixth 
and seventh — Avere undertaken under the leadership of the 
upright and devout king, Louis IX. of Prance. The first 
(1248-1254) resulted in the taking of Damietta in Egypt, 
but in the next year Louis, with his whole army, was capt- 
ured, and obtained his release only upon payment of a large 
ransom. In 1270 he sailed to Tunis, where he and most of 



284 THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE 

his army perished from sickness. In 1291 Acre fell into the 
hands of the Egyptian Mamelukes, and with its fall the Cru- 
sades came to an end. 

The conquests in the East were thus all surrendered, and 
the holy places were given up; but on the other hand the 
Turks had suffered a check which was destined to be a pro- 
tection to Europe ; the feudal system received its death blow ; 
the social distance between suzerain and serf was diminished, 
and there was an expansion of knowledge resulting from the 
contact of the crusaders with the superior refinement and 
elegance of the Saracens. It was natural that trade and 
commerce should receive an impulse, and in consequence of 
the new commercial activity, the cities advanced in strength 
and wealth. Although, therefore, the crusading enthusiasm 
had burned itself out, the indirect results of the Crusades were 
most important. After the thirteenth century it was impos- 
sible to rekindle the former enthusiasm. The enterprise 
no longer had the charm of novelty, and knightly ardor was 
dampened by the succession of practical failures. Antipathy 
to the infidel was giving way to a mingling of secular aims 
and interests. The mood of men's minds was changed, for 
there were new and wider fields of activity at home. 



DESCENDANTS OF WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR 285 



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CHAPTER XLII 

ENGLAND AND FRANCE : THE FIRST PERIOD OF THEIR 
RIVALSHIF (1066-1217) 

Connection of England and France. — In the era of the Crusades 
the kingdoms of England and France began to be prominent. 
The emperors were still in theory the sovereigns of Christen- 
dom. But Trance was becoming a compact monarchy, and in 
England the foundations of free representative government 
were being laid. AVhen William, Duke of Normandy, became 
king of England, it looked as if England and Trance would be 
united under one sovereignty, so close did their relations become. 
The Norman dukes in Trance were strong. The Conqueror, 
angry with the king of the Trench, was burning Mantes, in the 
border-land between Normandy and Trance, when, through the 
stumbling of his horse in the ashes, he received a hurt which 
ended in his death, September, 1087. On his death-bed he 
was smitten with remorse for his unjust conquest of England. 
He dared not appoint a successor : it belonged, he said, to the 
Almighty to do that ; but he lioj^ed that his son William 
might succeed him. 

William Rufus (1087-1100). — In accordance with the father's 
wish, William Kufus succeeded to the throne. He was an able 
man, but after the death of the good Lanfranc, Archbishop of 
Canterbury, he proved himself vicious and an irreligious king. 
One of his good deeds, however, was the appointment of the 
holy and learned Anselm to succeed Lanfranc. He quarreled 
with his brother Kobert, Duke of Normandy, and the latter 
mortgaged the duchy to the English king in order that he 
might raise money for the first Crusade. William was killed 
while hunting in the New Torest, perhaps accidentally by 

288 



CONNECTION OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE 289 

Walter Tyrrel, one of the hunting party, or else deliberately 
by one who had been robbed of his home when the New For- 
est was made. 

Henry I. of England (1100-1135) ; Louis VI. (the Fat) of France 

(1108-1137); Louis VII. (1137-1180) William was succeeded 

by his younger brother Henry, whose wife Matilda was tiie 
granddaughter of Edmund Ironsides. Through his mother 
the blood of Alfred the Great flowed in his veins. In the 
absence of his elder brother, Eobert, he ascended the throne 
and held it in spite of his brother's subsequent attempt to 
wrest it from him. At Tinchebrai (1106) he defeated Robert, 
took him prisoner, and got possession of Normandy. Eobert 
was kept in Cardiff Castle until his death (1135). Louis the 
Fat, King of France, who espoused the cause of Robert's son, 
was beaten at Bienneville in 1119. Subsequently a projected 
invasion of France by Henry and his son-in-law, Henry Y. of 
Germany, was prevented by the gathering of the vassals of 
the French king. Louis negotiated a marriage between his 
son (afterwards Louis YII.) and Eleanor, the daughter of Wil- 
liam, Duke of Aquitaine, thus paving the way towards gaining 
control of the south. Louis YII. (1137-1180) was not able to 
preserve the dominion which he inherited. He became em- 
broiled with Pope Innocent II. Louis suffered from remorse 
for the cruelties which marked his conduct of the war which 
resulted, and set on foot a fruitless crusade as an act of pen- 
ance. On his return from the expedition he divorced Eleanor 
on the ground that she was too near of kin to him (1152). 

Stephen (1135-1154) and Henry II. of England (1154-1189).— 
Matilda, widow of Henry Y., Emperor of Germany, had married 
in 1127 Geoffrey, Count of Anjou, who from his habit of wear- 
ing a sprig of broom (genet) in his bonnet was surnamed 
Plantagenet. His territory on the north was adjacent to Nor- 
mandy. Her father, Henry I. of England, after the death of 
his son by shipwreck, declared Matilda his heir and left the 
empress, as he called her, under the charge of his nephew, 
Stephen of Blois. The nobles had all sworn to accept her as 



290 ENGLAND AND FRANCE 

their queen. Stephen, however, caused himself to be elected 
king and was crowned at Westminster. Matilda's uncle, 
Da^dd, King of the Scots, who had promised to maintain 
her succession, took up her cause. After various vicissitudes, 
Matilda, having at one time been in great bodily peril, con- 
trived to escape from Oxford Castle. Peace was made in 1153, 
by which Stephen was to retain the kingdom, but was to be 
succeeded by Matilda's eldest son. 

The contest had released the greater barons from the restraint 
which Henry I. had put upon them. They were in conse- 
quence guilty of cruelties and atrocities. The kingdom was 
in a state of disorder : there were thieves along the highways, 
and the barons in their castles were themselves no better than 
the thieves. The poor were oppressed. They cried to heaven, 
but it seemed that they received no answer. " Men said openly 
that Christ and his Saints were asleep." Better times came 
under Henry II. His father was the Count of Anjou, so that 
he was the first of the Angevin kings of England. He married 
Eleanor, the heiress of Aquitaine. Henry was a strong-willed 
man, and he reduced the barons to subjection. While in theory 
he was a vassal of the king of France, he held so many fiefs 
that he was stronger than the king himself and all the other 
crown vassals together. It seemed as if he would absorb the 
little monarchy of France. This result was prevented, however, 
by the discord in the royal family of England, by the strifes be- 
tween the king and the clergy, and later by the struggle between 
the king and the barons. In order the better to control these 
great landholders, Henry arranged that they should pay him 
money instead of military service. At the same time, he en- 
couraged the small landowners to exercise themselves in arms, 
which would prepare them for self-defense and to assist the 
king. ^ He sent judges through the land, and from their cus- 
tom of inquiring of a certain number of men in the county 
as to the merits of cases coming before them, there grew up 
the English jury system. The decision of the jury came in 
time to be known as their verdict (vere dictum). 



CONSTITUTIONS OE CLAKENDON 291 

Becket; Constitutions of Clarendon. — Thomas a Becket had 
been Henry's chancelor, and the king raised him to the arch- 
bishopric of Canterbury, in the full expectation of having his 
sup]3ort (1162). At the time Henry was endeavoring to bring 
the clergy under the jurisdiction of the ordinary courts, his 
grandfather, the Conqueror, having granted to the ecclesiasti- 
cal courts the exclusive privilege of treating cases in which 
the clergy were concerned. The brilliant chancelor, who had 
been gay and extravagant in his ways, became a strict and 
austere prelate, and he held to the cause of the clergy against 
the king with a will as inflexible as that of Henry. In 1164, 
indeed, Becket with the other prelates swore to support the 
Constitutions of Clarendon, which were enactments adopted at 
a great council of prelates and barons in 1164, tending towards 
the subjection of ecclesiastics to the royal will. But Becket 
repented of his act, was absolved by the Pope from his oath, and 
fled to France. Later a reconciliation took place, and Becket 
returned to England. His temper proved to be unaltered, and 
a hasty expression of Henry, uttered in wrath and indicating 
a desire to be rid of him, was taken up by Eeginald Fitzurse 
and three other knights, who attacked the archbishop and slew 
him near the great altar in the Cathedral at Canterbury 
(Dec. 29, 1170). 

The nobles welcomed the occasion to revolt. Henry was 
regarded as the instigator of the bloody deed, and was moved 
to make important concessions to the Pope, Alexander III. 
The king was afilicted with remorse, and suffered himself to be 
scourged by the monks at the tomb of Becket, who had been 
canonized under the name of St. Thomas. Then the people 
rallied to him, and the uprising of the nobles was suppressed. 
Finally, however, the king's sons rebelled against him, and 
when, in 1183, John, the youngest, joined his older brothers, 
the father's heart was broken, and he died in 1189. 

Conquest of Ireland. — Henry had been authorized by Pope 
Hadrian lY. to invade Ireland, and in 1171 he crossed the 
Irish Sea and was acknowledged as sovereign by all the chief- 



292 ENGLAND AND FRANCE 

tains of the south. The whole country, however, was not sub- 
dued until Elizabeth's time, four centuries later. 

Philip Augustus of France (i 180-1223) ; Richard the Lion-hearted 
of England (1189-1199). — At the death of Louis VII. of France 
a new epoch is seen to begin. The dominion of the great 
vassals declines, and the true monarchical period commences. 
Louis the Fat, Philip Augustus, and St. Louis (Louis IX.) are 
the early forerunners of Louis XIV., the absolute monarch, the 
sole judge, legislator, and executive of the country. Philip 
was only fifteen years old when he began to reign alone. For 
forty-three years he labored, with shrewdness and perseverance 
and with few scruples as to the means employed, to build up 
the kingly authority. While Henry II. of England lived, 
Philip was allied with his son, Eichard the Lion-hearted, who 
succeeded his father. Richard was passionate and quarrel- 
some, yet generous. After his coronation, the two kings made 
ready for a crusade. They set out together, but they quar- 
reled. Philip came home first, but Richard on his way was 
taken prisoner by Leopold, Duke of Austria, and was kept in 
custody by the direction of the emperor Henry VI. for thirteen 
months. As nothing was heard of the king, his faithless and 
ambitious brother John (surnamed Sansterre, or Lackland) 
was made regent and claimed the crown. When Philip heard 
of Richard's release, he wrote to John (1194), '' Take care of 
yourself, for the devil is let loose.'' A war between Richard 
and Philip ended in a truce brought about by Pope Innocent 
HI. Shortly afterwards Richard was mortally wounded while 
besieging a castle near Limoges, where it was said that a treas- 
ure had been found which he as suzerain claimed. Never but 
twice had he visited England, and the country had no real 
cause to regret his death, although he always had the fame of 
a hero. 

John was chosen king, and procured the imprisonment of 
Arthur, Duke of Brittany, the son of his elder brother, Geof- 
frey, whose claims to the throne John had reason to dread. 
It is said that John ordered the keeper, Hubert de Burgh, to 



MAGNA CHARTA 293 

put out Arthur's eyes, and John also is accused of drowning 
the captive or of stabbing him with his own hand. John, hav- 
ing been summoned by Philip as a vassal of France to clear 
himself of the crime charged against him, failed to appear, and 
his fiefs were declared forfeited. 

There were left to the English in France only the duchy of 
Aquitaine, with Gascony and the Channel Islands. 

John's Quarrel with the Pope ; Magna Charta Under the 

name of taxation John robbed his subjects high and low. He 
was as rash as he was tyrannical. He attempted to force upon 
the monks of Canterbury an archbishop whom they did not 
like. Pope Innocent III. made them elect Stephen Langton, 
a religious and learned Englishman, but John, in a rage, drove 
the monks out of Canterbury and refused to recognize the 
election. The Pope excommunicated him, and laid England 
under an interdict; that is, he forbade services in the 
churches, and sacraments except for infants and the dying ; 
marriages were to take place in the church porch, and the 
dead were to be buried without prayer and in unconsecrated 
ground. As John paid no regard to this measure of coercion, 
Innocent absolved his subjects from their allegiance, and 
handed his kingdom over to the King of France (1212). Ee- 
sisted at home, and threatened from abroad, John now made 
an abject submission, laying his crown at the feet of the Pope's 
legate. He made himself the vassal of the Pope, receiving 
back from him the kingdoms of England and Ireland, which 
he had delivered to Innocent, and engaging that a yearly rent 
should be paid to Pome by the King of England and his heirs. 
Philip had to give up his plan of invading England. 

John's tyranny and licentiousness had become intolerable. 
Langton, a man of large views, and the English Church united 
with the barons in extorting from him, in the meadow of 
Eunnymede, — an island in the Thames, near Windsor, — the 
Magna Charta, the foundation of English constitutional liberty 
(1215). It secured two great principles: first, that the king 
could take the money of his subjects only when it was voted 



294 ENGLAND AND FRANCE 

to him for public objects ; and secondly, that he could not pun- 
ish or imprison them at his will, but could punish them only 
after conviction, according to law, by their countrymen. 

War with France; Deposition of John — ^ John joined in a 
great plan with the emperor, Otto IV., to attack Philip, but 
the French were victorious at Bouvines (121-4), and John, 
after having suffered reverses in Poitou, returned to Eng- 
land, only to find that his exertions against the Charter 
were unavailing. In a spirit of vengeance he marched into 
Scotland, robbing the country as he went, and every morning 
burning the house in which he had lodged for the night. 
His death in 1216 prevented the carrying out of a plan formed 
by the barons of making Louis, the son of Philip Augustus, 
King of England. 

The Albigensian War The war against the Albigenses be- 
gan in the reign of Philip ; but he pleaded that his hands were 
full, and left it to be waged by the nobles. The sect of 
the Albigenses had its seat in the south of France, and de- 
rived its name from the city of Albi. It held certain heret- 
ical tenets which were deemed mischievous, and rejected 
the authority of the priesthood. In 1208, under Innocent 
III., a crusade was preached against Raymond VI., Count of 
Toulouse, in Avhose territory most of the members of the 
sect Avere found. This was first conducted by Simon de 
Montfort, and then by Philip's son, Louis VIII. , the county 
of Toulouse being a fief of France. The result was that, 
after the accession of Louis IX., the county of Toulouse was 
incorporated in the French kingdom (1229). The advantages 
resulting from the crushing of the sovereignties of the south 
were sure to come to the French monarchy. But Philip left 
it to the nobles and to his successors to win the enticing prize. 

The first period of rivalry between England and France 
ends with John and Philip Augustus. For one hundred and 
twenty years, each country pursues its course separately. 
Monarchy grows stronger in France ; constitutional govern- 
ment advances in England. 



LOUIS IX. 295 

Louis IX. of France (1226-1270). — In Louis IX. (St. Louis) 
France had a king so noble and just that the monarchy was 
sanctified in the eyes of the people. At his accession he was 
but eleven years old, and with his mother, Blanche of Castile, 
had to encounter for sixteen years a combination of great 
barons determined to uphold feudalism. Most of them staid 
away from his coronation. When the young king and his 
mother approached Paris, they found the way barred ; but it 
was opened by the devoted burghers, who came forth with 
arms in their hands to bring them in. The magistrates of the 
communes swore to defend the king and his friends (1228). 
They were supported by the Papacy and were successful. 

England and France In 1243 Louis defeated Henry III. 

of England, who had come over to help the rebellious nobles. 
In 1259 he made a treaty with Henry, yielding to him 
the Limousin, Perigord, and parts of Saintonge, for which 
Henry relinquished all claims on the rest of France. In 
1245 Charles of Anjou, the king's brother, married Beatrice, 
through whom Provence passed to the house of Anjou. The 
king's long absence (1248-1254), during the sixth crusade, had 
no other result but to show to all that he combined in himself 
the qualities of a hero and of a saint. Louis fostered learn- 
ing. The University of Paris flourished under his care. In 
his reign Kobert of Sorbon (1252) founded the Sorbonne, the 
famous college for ecclesiastics which bears his name. 

Civil Policy of Louis. — In his civil policy Louis availed him- 
self of the Poman law to undermine feudal privileges. The 
legists enlarged the number of cases reserved for the king 
himself to adjudicate. He established new courts of justice, 
higher than the feudal courts, and the right of final appeal 
to himself. He made the king's Parliament a great judicial 
body. He abolished in his domains the judicial combat, or 
duel, — the old German method of deciding between the ac- 
cused and the accuser. He liberated many serfs. He showed 
mercy to all except Jews and heretics. In his intercourse 
with other nations, he blended firmness and courage with a 



296 ENGLAND AND FRANCE 

fair and unselfish spirit. With loyalty to the Holy See, and 
an exalted piety, Louis defended the rights of all, and did not 
allow the clergy to attain to an unjust control. Voltaire said 
of him, '^It is not given to man to carry virtue to a higher 
point." He stands in the scale of merit on a level with the 
traditional conception of Alfred of England. 

Henry III. (1216-1272). — On land as well as on the sea Louis 
VIII. (1223-1226), the son of Philip Augustus, met defeat at 
the hands of Henry, John's eldest son and successor. Henry 
was a weak prince. He became involved in the war with his 
barons, who were led by Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester, 
the son of the Simon who was a leader in the Albigensian cru- 
sade. Through him Parliament assumed the form which it has 
since retained. The greater barons, the lords or peers, with 
the bishops and principal abbots, came together in person and 
grew into the House of Lords. Knights had been sent to rep- 
resent the freeholders of each county, and Simon, by causing 
each city and borough to send two citizens as its representa- 
tives, laid the foundation of the House of Commons and the 
modern representative system. Simon defeated Henry at 
Lewes (1264), but when the barons flocked to the standard 
of Prince Edward, Simon was himself defeated and slain at 
Evesham in 1265. 

Henry was restored to power. He died in 1272, and was 
buried in Westminster Abbey, which he had begun to rebuild. 
Under Henry, the Great Charter, with some alterations, was 
three times confirmed. A charter of the Forest was added, 
providing that no man should lose life or limb for taking the 
king's game. Cruel laws for the protection of game in the 
forests or uncultivated lands had been a standing grievance 
from the days of the Norman Conquest. The confirming of 
the Great Charter in 1225 was made the condition of a grant 
of money from the National Council to the king. When the 
bishops, in 1236, desired to have the laws of inheritance con- 
formed to the rules of the Church, the barons made the laconic 
answer, "We will not change the laws of England." 



CHAPTER XLIII 

RISE OF THE BURGHER CLASS; SOCIETY IN THE ERA OF 
THE CRUSADES 

Origin of Municipal Freedom. — In the tenth century we see 
the beginning of a class midway between the nobility and the 
clergy, on the one hand, and the serfs on the other. Under 
feudalism only the first class and the last present themselves 
to view. The development of a third estate was most notice- 
able in the cities, where burghers began to increase in intelli- 
gence and to manifest a spirit of independence. It was at 
one time supposed that municipal government in the Middle 
Ages was a relic of Eoman times, but the better opinion is that 
municipal liberty as it existed in the Middle Ages was a prod- 
uct of the Germanic peoples. The need of defense drove men 
within the walls of towns. Industry and trade developed in- 
telligence and produced wealth. Compelled under the feudal 
system to pay heavy taxes, the burghers gradually gained 
enough power to extort exemptions and privileges from the 
suzerain, the effect of which was to give them self-government 
to a limited extent. Often a measure of freedom was will- 
ingly conceded by the lords. Charters were given to cities by 
the king; but communities thus formed differed from the 
other class of cities in not having the same privilege of admin- 
istering justice within their limits. The cities themselves 
often had vassals, and became suzerains. The courage and 
spirit of the burghers were mainly displayed in the mainte- 
nance of their own privileges, for even in the twelfth century 
they did not pretend to interfere in the government of the 
country. Commerce with the East had not as yet been devel- 

297 



298 RISE OF THE BURGHER CLASS 

oped. Marco Polo, after his return from China, where he lived, 
twenty-six years, published at Genoa the celebrated account of 
his travels. He died about 1324. Sir John Mandeville, an 
Englishman who was born about 1300, wrote a narrative of his 
Eastern travels and dedicated it to Edward III. But com- 
merce in the Middle Ages was chieiiy confined to the countries 
upon the Mediterranean and the borders of the North Sea and 
of the Baltic, to protect itself against the feudal lords and 
against pirates. 

The Hanseatic League. — To protect themselves effectually 
against all these aggressors, the cities of northern Germany 
formed (about 1241) the Hanseatic League, which, at the 
height of its power, included eighty-five cities, besides many 
other cities more or less closely affiliated with it. This league 
was dominant, as regards trade and commerce, in the north of 
Europe, and united under it the cities on the Baltic and the 
Ehine as well as the large cities of Flanders. Its merchants 
had control of the fisheries, the mines, the agriculture, and 
manufactures of Germany. Ltibeck was its chief center. In 
all the principal towns on the highways of commerce, the flag 
of the Hansa floated over its counting houses. Wherever the 
influence of the league reached, its regulations were in force. 
It almost succeeded in monopolizing the trade of Europe north 
of Italy. 

Flanders ; England ; France. — The numerous cities of Flan- 
ders — of which Ghent, Ypres, and Bruges were best known — 
became hives of industry and of thrift. Ghent, at the end of 
the thirteenth century, surpassed Paris in riches and power. 
In the latter part of the fourteenth century, the number 
of its fighting men was estimated at eighty thousand. The 
development of Holland was more slow. Amsterdam was con- 
stituted a town in the middle of the thirteenth century. Eng- 
land began to exchange products Avith Spain. It sent its 
sheep, and brought back the horses of the Arabians. The cities 
of France — Rouen, Orleans, Bheims, Lyons, Marseilles, etc. 
— were alive with manufactures and trade. In the twelfth 



GUILDS 



299 



century the yearly fairs at Troyes, St. Denis, and Beaucaire 
were famous all over Europe. 

Guilds. — A very important feature of mediaeval society was 
the guilds. Societies more or less resembling these existed 




Guild Hotjse at Hildeshbim 



among the Komans, some being for good fellowship or for re- 
ligious rites, and others being trade corporations. There were, 
also, similar fraternities among the Greeks in the second and 
third centuries b.c. In the Middle Ages, there were two 



300 RISE OF THE BURGHER CLASS 

general classes of guilds. First, there were the peace guilds, 
for mutual protection against thieves, and for mutual aid 
in sickness, old age, or impoverishment from other causes. 
They were numerous in England, and spread over the conti- 
nent. Secondly, there were the trade guilds, which embraced 
the merchant guilds, and the craft guilds. The latter were 
associations of workmen, for maintaining the customs of their 
craft, each with a master, or alderman, and other officers. They 
had their provisions for mutual help for themselves and for 
their widows and orphans, and they had their religious observ- 
ances. Each had its patron saint, its festivals, its treasury. 
They kept in their hands the monopoly of the branch of in- 
dustry which belonged to them. They had their rules in 
respect to apprenticeship, etc. Almost all professions and 
occupations were fenced in by guilds. 

Monasticism and Theology. — The Middle Ages were times 
of picturesque contrasts. Along with the passion for war and 
violence, there was a parallel self-consecration to a life of 
peace and devotion. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries 
there arose, among other orders, the Carthusian, Cistercian, and 
Carmelite orders of monks ; while other orders, especially that 
of the Benedictines, became very wealthy and powerful. In 
the thirteenth century the Mendicant orders arose. The order 
of St. Francis was fully established in 1223, and the order of 
St. Dominic in 1216. They combined with monastic vows the 
utmost activity in preaching and in otlier clerical work. It is 
from the middle of the eleventh century that the scholastic 
theology dates. Aristotle was the author whose philosophical 
writings were most authoritative with the schoolmen, while in 
theology Augustine was their most revered master. Of these 
schoolmen who aimed to systemize, elucidate, and, on philo- 
sophical grounds, to prove the doctrines of the Church, the 
most illustrious were Anselm in the eleventh century, and 
Abelard, Albert the Great, St. Bonaventura, and Thomas 
Aquinas in the thirteenth century Aquinas was the great 
theologian of the Dominican order, and his adherents were 



LITEKATURE AND LEARNING 301 

known as Tliomists ; while those who followed Duns Scotus, the 
great light of the Franciscans, were known as Scotists. 

Literature and Learning. — One of the most important results 
of the intellectual activity which marked the period begun by 
the Crusades was the rise of the universities. After the scho- 
lastic theology was introduced, teachers in this branch began 
to give instruction in Paris near the schools connected with 
the abbeys and cathedrals. Pupils gathered around the lec- 
turers, and in the thirteenth century an organization was 
developed which was called a University — a sort of guild — 
made up of four faculties, — Theology, Canon Law, Medicine, 
and the Arts. The arts included the three studies (trivium), 
of Grammar, Ehetoric, and Philosophy, with four additional 
branches (quadrivium), Arithmetic, Geometry, Music, and 
Astronomy. Next to Paris, Oxford was famous as a place of 
education ; while the University of Bologna in Italy was most 
renowned as a school for the study of the civil law. 

While intellectual activity was for a long time confined to 
the domain of theology, yet in the tenth and eleventh centuries 
a secular literature gradually made its appearance in the dia- 
lect of Provence. The study of this language and the poetry 
composed in it became the recreation of knights and ladies 
and thousands of poets, called Troubadours (from trobar, to in- 
vent), appeared almost simultaneously and became well known 
in Spain, Italy, and France. The period of chivalry began. 
Love became the theme of tender and passionate poems which 
indulged in a license which was not offensive in an age of lax 
manners and morals, but would be intolerable in a different 
state of society. Rhyme, which had theretofore been peculiar 
to Arabian poetry, was introduced and spread over Europe. 
In the twelfth century Trouveres, the troubadours of the 
north, appeared in Normandy and sang in the French language 
songs that were more warlike and virile than those of the 
south. A favorite theme of their romances was the prowess 
of Charlemagne and the mythical exploits of Arthur, the last 
Celtic king of Britain, and the Knights of his Eound Table. 



302 RISE OF THE BURGHER CLASS 

In Germany, in the age of the Hohenstaufens, poets called 
Minnesingers abounded. In the thirteenth century, when the 
troubadours were disajjpearing and the Provenqal tongue was 
becoming a mere dialect, German poetry took the form of laj^s 
of love, satirical fables, and metrical romances. Old ballads 

were thrown into the epic form, 
- ' and among them the Niehelung- 

enliecl, the Iliad of Germany. In 
Spain, meanwhile, the contests 
with the jNIoors were being re- 
flected in the Poem of the Cid, 
while in England important 
chronicles were being written in 
the monasteries by William of 
]\Ialmesbury, Geoffrey of Mon- 
mouth, Matthew Paris, and 
others. Italy's great poet, Dante, 
was born in Florence in 1265. 
^^j^^^ His principal poem, the Divine 

Comedy, is universally regarded 
as one of the greatest products of poetical genius. No poet 
before Dante ever equaled him in depth of thought and 
feeling. 

Art. — After the Lombard conquest of Italy the Byzantine 
and the late Roman schools of art made their appearance — 
the former being characterized by the drawing of figures which 
are stiff and conventional, while the latter marked a directly 
opposite conception. Cimabue (1240-1302) broke loose from 
the Byzantine influence. He is generally considered the 
founder of modern Italian painting. He was far outdone by 
Giotto (1276-1337). He was a contemporary of Dante, and it 
has been said of him, " He stands at the head of the school of 
allegorical painting, as the latter of that of poetry." Under 
Niccolo of Pisa and his son Giovaniti, a new school of sculp- 
ture arose in the thirteenth century. Iln architecture the most 
notable development of the period was the introduction of the 




ART 



303 



Gothic style characterized by the pointed arch and carried to 
perfection in the chnrches of France, England, and Germany. 
Abont the middle of the twelfth centnry the Gothic cathedrals 
began to be built in France. The cathedral of St. Denis, the 




Cologne Cathedral 



sepulcher of the French kings, was founded in 1144. Notre 
Dame was begun not long after. The great cathedral of Char- 
tres was begun in 1194, that of Kheinis in 1211, that of Amiens 
in 1220, and that of Cologne in 1248. In England, Salisbury 
was begun in 1220. The invention of stained glass enabled 
the architects to add a peculiar attraction to the Gothic style. 



304 



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PEEIOD IV. — FEOM THE END OF THE CRUSADES TO 
THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE 

(a.d. 1270-1453) 

CHAPTER XLIV 

ENGLAND AND FRANCE; SECOND PERIOD OF RIVALSHIP ; 
THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR (a.d. 1339-1453) 

Character of the New Era. — The Church was supreme in the 
era of the Crusades. These had been great movements of a 
society of which the Popes were the natural leaders. We 
come now to an era where the power of the Pope and of the 
Church loses ground. The nations grow to be more distinct 
from one another, and national spirit grows too strong for for- 
eign ecclesiastical control. Within each nation the laity are 
inclined to put limits to the power and privileges of the 
clergy. In several countries monarchy gets a firm foothold. 
The use of commerce, the influence gained by the legists and 
by the Roman law, had betokened the dawn of a new era. 
The development of the national languages and literature sig- 
nified its coming. Germany and the Holy Poman Empire no 
longer absorb attention. What is taking place in France and 
England is of equal importance. 

Philip IV. of France (1285-1314) ; War with Edward I. of Eng- 
land. — In France, royalty made a steady progress down to the 
long war of a Hundred Years. The sway of Philip III. (1270- 
1285) extended to the Pyrenees. Philip IV. (the Fair) has 
been called the King of the Legists. Lawyers, from their 
storehouse of Poman legislation, furnished him with weapons 
to face baron and pope. In 1292 conflicts broke out between 

306 



PHILIP IV. AND BONIFACE VIIL 307 

English, and French sailors. Philip tried to take peaceful 
possession of Guienne, but was prevented by the English gar- 
risons. Thereupon he summoned Edward I. of England, as 
the holder of the fiefs, before his court. The French king 
declared that the fiefs were forfeited in consequence of his not 
appearing in person. In the war that resulted (1294-1297), 
Philip had for his allies the Welsh and the Scots, who under 
William Wallace withstooci Edward. From this time, Scotland 
and France were constant allies. Philip seized but could not 
hold Aquitaine. He took possession of Flanders, with the ex- 
ception of Ghent. Flanders was then the richest country in 
Europe, and its numerous cities were populous and industrious. 
From England it received the wool used in its thriving manu- 
factures. To England its people were attached. Philip loaded 
the Flemish people with imposts. They rose in revolt, and the 
royal troops under Pobert d'Artois, Philip's brother, were de- 
feated by the Flemish burghers at Courtrai, in 1302. Flanders 
was restored to its Count, four towns being retained by France. 

Conflict of Philip IV. and Boniface VIII. — The expenses of Philip 
were enormous. In order to supply himself with money, he not 
only levied onerous taxes on his subjects, and practiced extor- 
tion upon the Jews, but he again and again debased the coin. 
His resolution to tax the property of the Church brought him 
into an important controversy with Boniface VIIL Boniface's 
idea of papal prerogative was as exalted as that formerly held 
by Hildebrand and Innocent III. But he had less prudence, 
and the times were altered. If Philip was sustained by the 
Roman law and its interpreters, Boniface, on the other hand, 
could lean upon the system of ecclesiastical or canon law, of 
which the Canonists were the expounders. The vast wealth 
of the clergy had led to laws for keeping it within bounds, 
like the statute of Mortmain (dead hand), which in England 
(1279) forbade the giving of land, without license from the 
king, to religious bodies, which could not alienate it. 

The jurisdiction of ecclesiastical courts had now come to be 
another matter of contention. In 1296 Boniface VIII. issued 



308 ENGLAND AND FRANCE 

a bull forbidding extraordinary taxes upon the clergy without 
the consent of the Holy See. Philip responded by forbidding 
foreigners to sojourn in France, thus driving out Roman priests, 
and also forbade money to be carried out of France, which cut 
off contributions to Rome. The king asserted his right as 
king of France to take charge of his own realm. In his 
strife with Rome, Philip appealed to the French nation. On 
April 10, 1302, he assembled at Paris a body, which, for the 
first time, contained the deputies of the universities and of 
the towns, and for this reason is considered to have been the 
first meeting of the States General. The clergy, the barons, 
the burghers, sided with the king. Boniface at length excom- 
municated Philip. The deputies of the king, with soldiers, 
made their way to Anagni, where Toniface was then staying. 
The French were driven out of the town; but not until the 
Pope had suffered great indignities at the hands of Philip's 
messengers. Boniface shortly afterwards died. 

The Babylonian Captivity (1309-1379). — After the short 
pontificate of Benedict XL, who tried to reconcile France and 
the Papacy, a French prelate was made Pope under the name 
of Clement V., he having previously agreed to comply with the 
wishes of Philip. Clement V. was crowned at Lyons in 1305, 
and in 1309 established himself at Avignon, on the borders 
of France. After him there followed at Avignon seven popes 
subject to French influence (1309-1376), — a period called the 
^'Babylonian Captivity." Philip remained implacable, wish- 
ing the condemnation of Boniface VIIL, even after his death. 
Clement V. held a council at Yienne in 1311, when Boniface 
was declared to have been orthodox, and at the same time 
Pliili}) was shielded from ecclesiastical reproach. 

Suppression of Knights Templars. — Philip coveted the vast 
wealth of the order of Knights Templars, and one of the de- 
mands the council had to grant was their condemnation. On 
October 13, 1307, the Templars were arrested all over France, 
an act which shows the power and the injustice of Philip. 
They were charged with secret immoralities, and with prac- 



THE SALIC LAW 309 

tices involving impiety. Many of tliem were examined under 
torture, and burned at the stake. Individuals may have been 
guilty of some of the charges, but there was no warrant for such 
a verdict against the entire order. The order was abolished 
by Clement Y. 

Law Studies ; Mercenary Troops. — During the reign of Philip 
the Fair, it was ordained that Parliament should sit twice every 
j^ear at Paris (1303). The king needed soldiers as well as law- 




*1 




Papal Palace at Avignon 

yers. Mercenary troops were beginning to take the place of 
feudal bands. Philip brought the G-enoese galleys against the 
ships of Flanders. At the accession of Philip Y. (1316-1322) 
it was decreed that no female should succeed to the throne of 
France. This was imagined to be a part of the old Salic 
Law. The rule was really the result of the " genealogical 
accident " that for three hundred and forty-one years, or since 
the election of Hugh Capet, every French king had been suc- 
ceeded by his son. In several cases the son had been crowned 



310 ENGLAND AND FRANCE 

in the lifetime of the father. Thus the principle of heredity, 
and of heredity in the male line, had taken root. 

Edward I. of England (i 272-1 307) ; Conquest of "Wales ; Wil- 
liam Wallace. — Edward was in the Holy Land when his 
father died. He became " the most brilliant monarch of the 
fourteenth century." Llywelyn, Prince of Wales, was com- 
pelled to take the oath of allegiance, and a subsequent rebel- 
lion resulted in 1283 in the conquest of Wales. Thus Wales 
was joined to England. The king gave to his son the title 
of Prince of Wales, which the eldest son of the sovereign of 
England has since borne. Edward claimed to be suzerain of 
the Scots, and in a contest for the Scotch throne between two 
competitors of Xorman descent, John Baliol and Robert Bruce, 
Edward as umpire decided for Baliol. When he subsequently 
called upon Baliol to aid him against France, the latter re- 
nounced his allegiance and declared war. He was conquered 
at Dunbar, however, and made prisoner (1297). Scotland 
appeared to be subjugated, but AYilliam Wallace at the head 
of a band of patriots gained a victory at Stirling, in 1297; 
and kept up the contest until, after a defeat at Ealkirk in 
1298, he was betrayed into Edward's hands, and was brutally 
executed in London (1305). 

Robert Bruce — Robert Bruce, the grandson of BalioPs rival, 
was crowned king at Scone, and summoned the Scots to his 
standard. The English king sent his son Edward to conquer 
him, but the king himself died before the war had fairly begun. 

Parliament; The Jews Under Edward the form of govern- 
ment by king, lords, and commons begins to take on its later 
form. Parliament, under Edward III., met in two distinct 
houses. jVIany important statutes had been passed, and during 
this reign much was done to secure the liberty of the subject. 
The Jews at first received the protection of the crown, but 
Edward finally yielded to popular sentiment and banished them 
from the kingdom. 

Edward II. (1307-1327). — The younger Edward was a weak 
and despicable sovereign. The king and the barons, who had 



HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 311 

been in conflict with, one another, made peace from a common 
desire to check the successes of Bruce in Scotland. At Ban- 
nockburn, however, the English were totally defeated by a 
greatly inferior force of foot soldiers. The English cavalry 
were thrown into confusion by Bruce, who dug pits in front of 
his army and covered them with turf resting on sticks. Hos- 
tilities between Edward and his favorites the Despencers, on 
the one hand, and the barons with Edward's queen, Isabella, 
on the other, resulted in Edward's abdication and the execution 
of the Despencers. The dethroned king was carried from castle 
to castle, and was finally murdered in secret at Berkeley Castle. 

The Hundred Years' War: Period I. (to the Peace of 
Bretigxy, 1360) 

Origin of the War ; Edward III. of England (1327-1377) — Eng- 
land and France entered on one of the longest wars of which there 
is any record in history. It lasted, with, a few short periods 
of intermission, for a hundred years. There were two main 
causes of strife at the outset. First, the King of France coveted 
the English territory around Bordeaux; second, the English 
would not allow Flanders, with its important manufacturing 
towns, to pass under French control. Independently of these 
grounds of dispute, Edward III., whose mother was a sister of 
the last French king, laid claim to the French crown. Philip VI. 
(1328-1350), then reigning, was only the late king's cousin, but 
the French stood by the Salic Law, although a much stronger 
feeling was their determination not to be ruled by an English- 
man. 

Early Events of the War. — Hostilities began in 1337. Edward 
entered France, for the first time publicly setting up his claim 
to be King of France, and was accepted by the Flemish as their 
suzerain. The supremacy of the English was established on 
the water after the first battle near Fort Sluys (1340), where 
Edward won a victory and thirty thousand Frenchmen were 
slain or drowned. The French fleet was made up of hired Cas- 



312 ENGLAND AND FRANCE 

tilian and Genoese vessels. In 1341, the war was renewed on 
account of a disputed succession in Brittany, in which the 
Salic Law was this time on the English side. This war 
was kept up for twenty-four years. 

Battle of Crecy ; Calais ; Brittany. — In 1346, the Earl of Derby 
made an attack in the south of Erance, while Edward, with 
his young son Edward, the Prince of Wales, devastated Nor- 
mandy. King Edward advanced towards Paris ; but lack of 
provisions forced him to change his course and march in the 
direction of Flanders. His situation now became perilous. 
He was followed by Philip at the head of a powerful army ; 
and had the French been more energetic and prompt, the Eng- 
lish forces might have been destroyed. Edward was barely 
able, by means of a ford at low tide, to cross the Somme, and 
to take up an advantageous position at Crecy. There he was 
attacked with imprudent haste by the army of the French. 
The chivalry of France went down before the English archers, 
and Edward gained an overwhelming victory. Philip's brother 
Charles fell with many other friends and nobles and, it was 
said, thirty thousand soldiers (1346). But this was an ex- 
aggeration. 

In the battle, the English king's son — Edward, the Black 
Prince as he was called from the color of his armor — was hard 
pressed ; but the father would send no aid, saying, " Let the boy 
win his spurs." It was the custom to give the spurs to the full- 
fledged knight. Calais, the port so important to the English, 
was captured by them after a siege. The deputies of the citi- 
zens, almost starved, came out Avith cords in their hands, to 
signify their willingness to be hanged. The French were 
driven out, and Calais was an English town for more than two 
centuries. France was defeated on all sides. The Scots, too, 
were vanquished, and David Bruce was made prisoner (1346). 
In Brittany the French party was prostrate. A truce between 
the kings was concluded for ten months. 

The Black Death. — In the midst of these calamities, a 
fearful pestilence, called the Black Death, swept over France. 



BATTLE OF POITIERS 313 

It came from the East and passed over Italy to Provence and 
thence to Paris, spreading destruction in its path. It reached 
England^ and it is thought by some that one half of the popula- 
tion perished (1347-1349). 

English and French Armies. — At this time, when the power 
of France was so reduced, the king acquired the Dauphine of 
Vienne by purchase from the last Dauphin, Humbert II., and 
Dauphin became the title of the heir to the Erench crown. In 
the French armies, there was no effective force but the cavalry, 
and there was a fatal lack of subordination and discipline. 
There Avas no union of classes. The poor Genoese archers 
who had fought with the French at Crecy were despised by 
the gentlemen on horseback. In England, on the contrary, 
under kings with more control and from the combination of 
lords and common people in resistance to kings, the armies had 
acquired union and discipline. At Crecy, the entire English 
army fought on foot. 

Battle of Poitiers ; Insurrection in Paris. — Philip left his 
crown to his son, John II. of Normandy, called " the Good " 
(1350-1364) ; but the name does not mean morally worthy, 
but rather, prodigal, gay, and extravagant. He was a passion- 
ate and cruel king. His relations with Charles " the Bad,^' 
king of Navarre, — who, however, was the better man, — 
brought disasters upon France. 

Philip of Navarre, the brother of Charles, helped the Eng- 
lish against John in Normandy. Meanwhile, the Prince of 
Wales (the Black Prince) ravaged the provinces near Guienne. 
The national spirit in France was roused by the peril. The 
States General granted large supplies of men and money, but 
only on the condition that the treasure should be dispensed 
under their superintendence, and that they should be assembled 
every year. The army of the Black Prince was small, and he 
advanced so far that he was in imminent danger; but the 
attack on him at Poitiers (1356), by the vastly superior force 
of King John, was made with so much impetuosity and so little 
prudence that the French, as at Crecy, were completely de- 



314 ENGLAND AND FRANCE 

featecl. The French charged on foot up a lane, not knowing 
that the English archers were behind the hedges on either side. 
Their dead to the number of eleven thousand lay on the field. 
The king, and with him a large part of the nobility, were 
taken prisoners. John was taken to England (1357). From 
the moment of his capture he was treated with the utmost 
courtesy. The French peasantry, however, suffered greatly ; 
and in France the name of Englishmen for centuries after- 
wards was held in abhorrence. 

Insurrection in Paris. — The incapacity of the nobles to save 
the kingdom called out from the plebeian class competent lead- 
ers, chief of whom were Robert le Coq, a bishop and x)resident 
of Parliament ; and Etienne Marcel, an able man at the head 
of the municipality of Paris. The States General at Paris, 
urged forward by such as these, required of the Dauphin the 
punishment of the principal officers of the king, the release of 
the King of Navarre, and the establishment of a council made 
up from the three orders for the direction of all the important 
affairs of government. The Dauphin Charles was obliged, at 
a meeting of the States General of Paris (1357), to yield to 
demands for political reform. The king, a prisoner in Eng- 
land, refused to ratify the compact. A civil war was the 
result. Bloody insurrections of the peasantry were put down. 
Marcel was assassinated, and his movement ended with his 
death. The hope of a free parliamentary government was 
dashed in pieces. 

Treaty of Bretigny (1360) . — The captive king, John, made a 
treaty with Edward by which he ceded at least one half of his 
dominions. The Dauphin having repudiated the compact, Ed- 
ward invaded France with a large army. He found it difficult 
to get food for his troops, however, and as Charles prudently 
avoided a battle, Edward was led to conclude the treaty of 
Bretigny, by which he acquired full sovereignty in the province 
of Aquitaine in consideration of a renunciation of his claim to 
Normandy and to the French crown. The king was to be set 
at liberty on the payment of the first instalment of his ransom. 



I 



HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 315 

The Hundred Years' War: Period II. (to the Peace of 
Troyes, 1420) 

Duchy of Burgundy. — When, in 1361, tlie ducal liouse of Bur- 
gundy became extinct, tlie fief reverted to tlie crown. John 
gave it to his son Philip the Bold, who married the heiress of 
Flanders, and thus founded the power of the house of Bur- 
gundy in the Netherlands. 

Du Guesclin : Contest in Spain. — John returned to England 
because one of his sons, left as a hostage, had fled. He died 
soon after and was succeeded by Charles V., or Charles the 
Wise (1364-1380). He reformed the coin and did much to 
restore prosperity. The king placed much reliance upon Du 
Guesclin, a valiant gentleman of Brittany, who fought the free 
lances under Charles of Navarre and led an expedition into 
Spain to help the cause of Henry of Trastamare against an 
aspirant for the throne of Castile, Peter the Cruel, who was 
supported by the Black Prince. The French party was 
successful. 

Advantages gained by the French. — Edward III. was old, and 
the Black Prince, who was ill and gloomy, was unpopular with 
his Aquitanian subjects. Charles took the opportunity to de- 
clare war (1369), and when the English landed at Calais he 
pursued his settled policy of refusing to meet the enemy in a 
pitched battle. In 1370, and again in 1373, the English entered 
France, but were unable to gain any distinct advantage. A 
truce was made in 1375, but the war was renewed two years 
afterwards upon the death of Edward III. After sacking 
Limoges in 1370, the Black Prince had returned to England, 
broken in health. After his father's death, the French were 
successful on every side. 

State of England The Black Prince, after his return, did 

much to save the country from misrule, so that his death was 
deplored. The Parliament at this time was called the Good. 
It turned out of office unworthy men, friends of John of 
Gaunt, the third son of Edward. When the Black Prince died, 



316 ENGLAND AND FRANCE 

his brother regained the chief power, and his influence was 
mischievous. 

John Wyclif. — In the reign of Edward III. the English 
sliowed a strong disposition to curtail the power of the popes 
in England. John Wyclif, who translated the Bible into 
English, became prominent. He took the side of the parish 
clergy in their conflict with the mendicant orders. He also 
advocated the cause of the king against the demands of the 
Pope. He translated the Bible into English. He adopted 
doctrines, at that time new, which were not behind the later 
Protestant, or even Puritan, opinions. He was protected by 
Edward III. and died in peace at Lutterworth in 1384 ; but 
after his death his bones were taken up and burned. His 
followers bore the nickname of Lollards, or Psalm-singers. 

Richard II. (1377-1399) ; the Peasant Insurrection ; Deposi- 
tion of Richard. — Richard, the young son of the Black Prince, 
had an unhappy reign. At first he was ruled by his uncles, 
especially by John of Gaunt. Four years after his accession, 
a great insurrection of the peasants broke out. The first leader 
in Essex was a priest who took the names of Jack Straw. In 
the previous reign, the poor had found reason to complain 
bitterly of their landlords ; but their lot now was even harder. 
At Blackheath, a priest named John Ball harangued the insur- 
gents, who numbered one hundred thousand men, on the equal- 
ity of rights, from the text, — 

"When Adam delved, and Eve span, 
"Who was then a gentleman? 

Young E-ichard managed them with so much tact that they 
dispersed. One of their most fierce leaders, Wat Tyler, was 
stabbed during a parley which he was holding with the king. 
In 1398 Richard banished two noblemen, who at a former day 
had offended him. One of them was Thomas Mowbray, Duke 
of Norfolk; the other was Henry of Bolingbroke, Duke of 
Hereford, son of John of Gaunt. When John of Gaunt died, 
Richard seized his lands. In 1399, when Richard was in 



HENRY IV„ 317 

Ireland, Bolingbroke, assisted by the great family of Percy, 
obliged Eichard to resign tlie crown, and lie was deposed 
by Parliament for misgovernment. Not long after, lie was 
murdered. Bolingbroke was made king under the name of 
Henry IV. 

The English Language and Literature. — In the reign of Edward 
III., the French language ceased to be the fashion, and Eng- 
lish came into general use. In 1362 the use of English was 
established in the courts of law, but Latin still continued to be 
familiar to the clergy. The two principal poets are Chaucer 
and Gower. Chaucer's great poem, the Canterbury Tales, is 
the latest and most remarkable of his works. 

Henry IV. (1399-1431) ; Two Rebellions: the Lollards. — By 
right of birth the crown would have fallen to Boger Mortimer, 
Earl of March, the grandson of Lionel, Duke of Clarence, an 
older son of Edward III. There was no law compelling Par- 
liament to give the throne to the next of kin, so it fell to the 
house of Lancaster. Henry had to confront two rebellions. 
One was that of the Welsh, under Owen Glendower. The 
other was that of the powerful Northumberland family of the 
Percys, which took up the cause of Eichard. The Percys 
joined Glendower. They were beaten in a bloody battle near 
Shrewsbury, in 1403, where Northumberland's son " Hotspur " 
(Harry Percy) was slain. While praying at the shrine of St. 
Edward in Westminster, the king was seized with a fit, and 
died in the Jerusalem Chamber of the Abbey. In the next 
reign the Lollards, who were numerous, had a leader in Sir 
John Oldcastle, called Cobhani, who was finally put to death 
as a traitor and heretic. The Lollards were persecuted, not 
only as heretics, but also as desiring to free the serfs from 
their bondage to the landlords. 

The Burgundians and Armagnacs. — The aspect of public af- 
fairs in Prance was clouded when Charles YL (1380-1422), 
who was not twelve years old, succeeded to the throne. His 
uncles contended for the regency. Their quarrels distracted 
the kingdom. A contest arose with the Flemish cities under 



318 ENGLAND AND FRANCE 

the leadership of Philip van Artevelde, but they were defeated 
by the French nobles, and Artevelde was slain. Two factions 
sprung up, — the Burgundians and the Armagnacs. Margaret, 
the wife of the Duke of Burgundy, received Flanders by in- 
heritance, on the death of her father, the Count (1382). King 
Charles became insane. Thenceforth there was a struggle in 
France for supremacy between the adherents of the dukes of 
Burgundy and the adherents of the house of Orleans. The 
latter came to be called Armagnacs (1410), after the Count 
d'Armagnac, the father-in-law of Charles, Duke of Orleans. 
The strength of the Burgundians was in the North and in 
the cities. They were friends of the house of Lancaster in 
England — of Henry IV. and Henry V. The strength of the 
Armagnacs was in the South. At the outset it was a party 
of the court and of the nobles ; later it became a national 
party. Louis, Duke of Orleans, was treacherously assassin- 
ated by a partisan of the Burgundians (1107). This act 
fomented the strife. 

Battle of Agincourt ; Treaty of Troyes (1420) It was in 1393 

that Charles VI. partially lost his reason. For the rest of his 
life, except at rare intervals, he was either imbecile or frenzied. 
By the division of counsels and a series of fatalities, gigantic 
preparations for the invasion of England had come to naught. 
Henry V. of England (1413-1422), from motives of ambition, 
resolved to claim the throne of France and to make war 
across the Channel. Accordingly he demanded his " inherit- 
ance " according to the treaty of Bretigny, together with Nor- 
mandy. On the refusal of this demand, he renewed the claim 
of his great-grandfather to the crown of France, although he 
was not the eldest descendant of Edward III. Henry invaded 
France at the head of fifty thousand men. He took Harfleur, 
but not until after a terrible siege. On his way towards Calais 
with not more than nine thousand men, he found his way barred 
at Agincourt by the Armagnac forces, more than fifty thousand 
in number, comprising the chivalry of France (1415). In the 
great battle that ensued the horses of the French floundered 



AGINCOURT: JOAN OF ARC 319 

in the mud, and horse and rider were destroyed by the 
English bowmen. The French suffered anotlier defeat like 
the defeats of Crecy and . Poitiers, losing thousands of men, 
among them some of the noblest men in France. France was 
falling to pieces. Rouen was besieged by Henry, and com- 
pelled by starvation to surrender (1419). The fury of factions 
continued to rage. There were dreadful massacres by the 
mob in Paris. The Duke of Burgundy, John the Fearless (Jean 
sans Peur), was murdered in 1419 by the opposite faction. 
The young Duke Philip, and even the Queen of France, Isa- 
bella, were now found on the Anglo-Burgundian side. By the 
Treaty of Troyes, in 1420, Catherine, the daughter of Charles 
VI., was given in marriage to Henry V., and he was made the 
heir of the crown of France when the insane king, Charles YL, 
should die. Henry was made regent of France. The whole 
country north of the Loire was in his hands. The Dauphin 
Charles retired to the provinces beyond that river. 

The Hundred Years' War ; Period III. (to the End, 

1453) 

France in 1422 Both Henry and Charles YL died in 1422. 

The Duke of Bedford reigned in France in the name of his in^ 
fant nephew, Henry YL Charles YII. (1422-1461) was pro- 
claimed king by the Armagnacs, and represented the national 
cause. Bedford laid siege to Orleans, the last bulwark of the 
royal party. 

Joan of Arc. — When the national cause was at this low point. 
Providence raised up a deliverer in the person of a pure, sim- 
ple-hearted, and pious maiden of Domremy in Lorraine, seven- 
teen years of age, Jeanne Dare by name (the name Joan of 
Arc being merely a mistake in orthography). The tales of 
suffering that she had heard deeply moved her. She felt her- 
self called of Heaven to liberate France, and believed that 
angels' voices bade her undertake this holy mission. Her own 
undoubting faith aroused faith in others. Commissioned by 



320 ENGLAND AND FRANCE 

the king, she mounted a horse, and, with a banner in her hand, 
joined the French soldiers, whom she inspired with fresh cour- 
age. They forced the English to give up the siege of Orleans, 
and to march away. Other defeats of the English followed. 
The Maid of Orleans took Charles to Eheims, and stood by him 
at his coronation. The English and Burgundians rallied their 
strength. Joan of Arc was ill supported, and was made pris- 
oner before Paris by the Burgundians. They delivered her to 
the English. She was subjected to grievous indignities, was 
condemned as a witch, and finally burned as a relapsed heretic 
at Eouen (1431). The last word she uttered was "Jesus." 
Her character was without a taint. In her soul the spirit of 
religion and of patriotism burned with a pure flame. A hero- 
ine and a saint combined, she died " a victim to the ingratitude 
of her friends, and the brutality of her foes." 

The English Driven Out. — In 1135 the Duke of Burgundy was 
reconciled to Charles VII. and joined the cause of France. Dur- 
ing a truce of two years, Henry VI. of England (1422-1461) 
married Margaret of Anjou, the daughter of the Duke, Bene. 
Henry was of gentle temper, but lacked prudence and vigor. 
In 1439 the organization of a standing army was begun, which 
greatly increased the military strength of France. In 1449 
the war with England was renewed. With the defeat of the 
English and the death of their commander, Talbot, in 1453, the 
contest of a century came to an end. England retained only 
Calais, across the Channel, with Havre and Guines Castle. 

Rebellion of Jack Cade. — The peasants in England were 
now free from serfdom. Under Henry VI. a formidable insur- 
rection of men marched to London led by John Cade, who 
called himself John Mortimer. They complained of bad gov- 
ernment and extortionate taxes. One main cause of the rising 
was the successes of the French. The condition of the labor- 
ing class had much improved. The insurgents were defeated 
by the citizens, and their leader was slain. In this reign began 
the long Wars of the Boses, or the contest of the houses of 
York and Lancaster for the throne. 



THE VISCONTI AND SEORZA 



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CHAPTER XLV 

GERMANY ; ITALY ; SPAIN ; THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES ; 
POLAND AND RUSSIA ; HUNGARY ; OTTOMAN TURKS ; THE 
GREEK EMPIRE 

I. Germany 

The Great Interregnum. — After the death of Frederick II. 
(1250), an interregnum of twenty-three years robbed tlie Em- 
pire of a vigor which it never afterwards regained. At this 
time the burghers in France and in England were gradually 
gaining strength; and although in Germany feudal control 
was less weakened, the German cities were developing rapidly 
in industry and trade. William of Holland wore the title of 
emperor until 1256, when some of the electors chose Alfonso X. 
of Castile, great-grandson of Frederick Barbarossa, and others 
chose Richard of Cornwall, younger son of King John of Eng- 
land. Their power was merely nominal. The great barons 
gradually dismembered the empire, and the period was a time 
of anarchy and trouble. The barons sallied out of their strong- 
holds to rob merchants and travelers. It was necessary to 
devise new means of protection, and new ways of preserving 
commerce and of enforcing public order. Sixty cities and 
three Ehenish archbishops accordingly formed the League of 
the Rhine, and the Hanseatic League (already described on 
p. 298) was also organized. 

House of Hapsburg. — Eudolph, Count of Hapsburg (1273- 
1291), was at length elected emperor, and devoted himself to 
the task of putting down disorders in Germany. He defeated 
Ottocar IL, King of Bohemia, and in a fierce battle at the March- 
field, in 1278, Ottocar was slain. Rudolph's practical abandon- 

323 



324 GERMANY 

ment of Italy, his partial restoration of order in Germany, and 
his service as the founder of the house of Hapsburg or of Aus- 
tria, are the principal features of his reign. He was never 
crowned as emperor. 

Henry VII. (1308-1313) ; Italy. — Edward I. of England 
hired the successor of Eudolph, Adolphus of Nassau, to de- 
clare war against France. In 1298, however, he was dethroned 
by the electors, and Rudolph's son, Albert I., was chosen. In 
1308 he was murdered by his nephew John, and Henry YII. 
(1308-1313) succeeded him. He was crowned King of Italy 
in Pavia and was declared emperor at Kome in 1312. E-ival 
parties quickly rose up against him, however. He died, as it 
was charged, by poison mixed in the sacramental cup (1313). 
He was a man of pure and noble character ; but the time had 
passed for Italy to be governed by a German sovereign. 

Civil War ; Electors at Rense. — One party of the electors 
chose Erederick of Austria (1314-1347), and the other Louis 
of Bavaria (1314-1330). A terrible civil war ended in the 
capture of Erederick in the battle of Mtihldorf. Pope John 
XXIL (at Avignon) wished to give the crown to Philip the 
Fair of France. He excommunicated Louis, who, however, 
was crowned emperor by a Pope of his own creation. France 
prevented a reconciliation between the German Emperor and 
Pope John or his successor. Pope Benedict XII. The German 
electors, irritated by foreign interference, made at Eense, in 
1328, a declaration that the elected King of the Germans 
received his authority from the choice of the electoral princes, 
and became Boman Emperor without being crowned by a Pope. 
The imprudence of Louis, and his assumption of certain papal 
prerogatives turned the electors against him, and he was de- 
posed, and died soon afterwards. 

Charles IV. (1347-1378). — Charles IV. succeeded Louis. 
He was crowned emperor at Rome (1355), and King of Bur- 
gundy at Aries (1365). He devoted himself to building up 
his own hereditary dominion. He established the first Ger- 
man university at Prague in 1348, and granted to Germany 



SWITZERLAND 325 

tlie charter called the Golden Bull in 1356. It provided for 
the election of the emperor by the seven electors, who had, in 
fact, long exercised the power, and it made the electoral states 
indivisible, inalienable, and hereditary in the male line. 

Wenceslaus and Sigismund Wenceslaus, the Wenzel, the son 

of Charles IV. (1378-1400), was a coarse and cruel king, under 
whom all the old disorders of the interregnum sprang up anew. 
In 1410 Sigismund, the brother of Wenceslaus, was chosen 
king, and in 1433 was crowned emperor. 

In the reign of Sigismund the doctrines of Wyclif had pene- 
trated from England into Bohemia, and a strong party, of 
which John Huss was the principal leader, advocated changes 
in the Church, both doctrinal and practical : this led to the trial 
of Huss for heresy at the Council of Constance. He was con- 
demned as a heretic and burned at the stake in 1415. Jerome 
of Prague, another reformer, was dealt with in the same way 
by the same council (1416). Ziska, a Bohemian, led the revolt 
induced by the doings of the council. The more fanatical por- 
tion of the Hussites — as the followers of Huss were called — 
were at length defeated and crushed ; but with the moderate 
party the Council of Basle (1431-1449) concluded a treaty 
after Ziska had defeated the imperial troops. 

Switzerland. — Switzerland, originally a part of the kingdom 
of Aries, had been ceded, with this kingdom, to the German 
Empire in 1033. Within it was established a lay and ecclesi- 
astical feudalism. In the twelfth century the cities — Zurich, 
Basle, Berne, and Ereiburg — began to be centers of trade, and 
gained municipal privileges. The three mountain cantons 
cherished the spirit of freedom. The counts of Hapsburg, 
after the beginning of the thirteenth century, exercised a cer- 
tain indefinite jurisdiction in the land. They endeavored to 
transform this into an actual sovereignty. Two of the cantons 
received charters placing them in an immediate relation to the 
empire. After the death of Eudolph I., the three cantons 
above named united in a league. Out of this the Swiss Confed- 
eracy gradually grew up. There were struggles to cast off 



326 ITALY 

foreign control; but the story of William Tell, and other 
legends of the sort, are probably fabulous. Albert of Austria 
left to his successor in the duchy the task of subduing the 
rebellion. The Austrians were completely defeated at Mor- 
garten, "the Marathon of Switzerland" (1315). About the 
middle of the fourteenth century, the Swiss Confederacy was 
enlarged by the addition of Lucerne, Zurich, Glarus, Zug, and 
of the city of Berne. The battle of Sempach (1386) brought 
another great defeat upon the Austrians. There, if we may 
believe an ancient song, a Swiss hero, Arnold of Winkelried, 
grasped as many of the spear points as he could reach, as a 
sheaf in his arms, and devoted himself to death, opening thus 
a path in which his followers rushed to victory. Once more 
the Swiss triumphed at ]S"afels (1388). From that time they 
were left to the enjoyment of their freedom. 

II. Italy 

Guelf s and Ghibellines; Freedom in the Cities After the death 

of Frederick IL, the popes warred against his successors until 
Conradin, the last of the Hohenstaufens, died on the scaffold 
at Naples. Charles of Anjou lost Sicily through the rebellion 
known as the Sicilian Vespers (1282) ; and the Papal States, 
after the election of Rudolph of Hapsburg, became a distinct 
principality of the pontiffs. Throughout Italy the strife be- 
tween Guelfs and Ghibellines was carried forward with the 
utmost bitterness. In the midst of the contest Dante produced 
his immortal poem, he himself being a Ghibelline and an impe- 
rialist. Gradually the plebeian class grew stronger. Older 
families of the nobility died out, and new families rose to prom- 
inence and power. Burghers banded together in guilds. The 
Guelfs devoted themselves to the destruction of feudalism, and 
to the building of republican institutions until the final tri- 
umph of their policy in Florence in 1253. During the progress 
of the struggle, city was arrayed against city. "Pisa, which 
had ruined Amalfi, was now ruined by Genoa." Genoa and 



THE TYRANTS 327 

Venice became rivals for the control of the Mediterranean. 
Charles of ValoiS; at the call of Pope Boniface VIII., came into 
Italy, and the connection thus formed between the popes and 
the French houses of Anjou and Valois led to the Babylonip.n 
Exile at Avignon, during which Italy was comparatively 
exempt both from imperial and papal control. 

The Tyrants. — During the struggle between Gruelfs and Ghi- 
bellines, the war was carried on by leaders or " captains of the 
people," who were skilled in arms and who became in many 
instances the founders of ruling houses or dynasties in the cities 
of northern Italy. During the earlier years of the fourteenth 
century, when the fury of the civil wars began to decline, the 
cities were left more and more under the rule of masters called 
Tyrants. In 1327 the Visconti established their power in 
Milan. They were Ghibellines. At this time the leader of 
the Guelfs was Eobert, King of I^aples (1309-1343). 

The Tyrants, or despots, have been divided into six classes. 
The first had a certain hereditary right ; the second had been 
vicars of the empire ; the third had acquired power as cap- 
tains or podestas elected by the burghers, but had used their 
power to enslave the cities. The fourth class is made up of 
the Condottiere. These Free Companies, or mercenary troops, 
were hired by the despots and the cities to fight their battles in 
order that the burghers themselves might devote their energies 
to manufactures and trade. The leaders of these mercenaries 
introduced cavalry and introduced skillful methods of fighting. 
The battles, however, became bloodless games of strategy ; 
military energy declined ; while intrigue and statecraft became 
the instruments of political aggrandizement. The fifth of the 
six classes to which reference has been made included the rela- 
tives of popes, like the Borgia of Eomagna. The sixth class is 
that of eminent citizens like the Medici at Florence and the 
Bentivogli of Bologna. 

States in Italy. — By the middle of the fifteenth century the 
kingdom of Naples, the duchy of Milan, the republics of 
Florence and Venice, and the principality of the Pope had be- 



328 



ITALY 



come the five most important communities in Italy. The con- 
test between the respective adherents of the houses of Aragon 
and Anjou divided southern Italy into two parts for many 
years. Alfonso V. of Aragon finally, in 1435, united both 
kingdoms of Naples and Sicily and reigned wdsely and pros- 
perously for twenty- three years. In the north, the power of 
Milan was growing. In 1385 Gian Galeazzo Visconti became 
sole master of Milan, and bought the ducal title from the 
Emperor Wenceslaus. Many cities were subject to him. At 




Doge's Palace at Venice 



Galeazzo's death the Condottieri rose in rebellion, and one of 
them, Francesco Sforza, in 1447 seized on the supreme power. 
Venice was as strong as any of the Italian states. Her consti- 
tution was of gradual growth, and she had gradually built up a 
lucrative commerce with the East. She engaged in a success- 
ful war with Genoa. Under Francesco Foscari, who was doge 
(or chief and executive) from 1423 to 1457, Venice took an 
active part in Italian affairs. In the meanwhile in Florence 
the Medici family was gaining complete control. Cosmo I., 
born in 1389, ruled under the republican forms and was dis- 
tinguished for his patronage of art and letters. 



THE PAPAL PRINCIPALITY 



329 



Eome fared badly while the popes were at Avignon. The 
city was distracted by the feuds of leading families. An at- 
tempt to restore the old Eoman liberty was made by an enthu- 
siast, Eienzi, who was chosen tribune, and at first found favor 
in Italy. His head was turned, however, and his pomp so dis- 
gusted the people that he was finally put to death while trying 
to escape from Eome in disguise (1354). After vain attempts 
to cement anew the fragments of the papal principality, Pope 








Baptistery, Gathedbal, and Leaning Tower of Pisa 



Mcholas V. and his successors (from 1477) succeeded in ac- 
complishing the task, and thereafter the temporal power of the 
popes acquired fresh vigor. 

Literature ; Art ; Commerce. — The seaports of Venice and 
Genoa were the centers of a flourishing commerce. Manufac- 
ture and trade flourished in Milan, Venice, and Florence. The 
bank of Venice was established in 1171. Advance in civiliza- 
tion, however, was attended with corruption of morals. Amid 
political agitation in Italy, there had been a brilliant develop- 
ment in literature and art. When Dante died, the poet Pe- 



330 SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 

trarch (1304-1374) was growing to manhood, while Boccaccio 
(1313-1375), who became a master in Italian prose, was still a 
child. The church of St. Mark was built at Venice in the 
Byzantine style as early as 1071. In the twelfth century the 
Baptistery and the famous Leaning Tower were built at Pisa. 
At the end of the thirteenth century, the church of Santa 
Croce was built at Florence, and in the century following 
Brunelleschi, the reviver of classical art in Italy, placed the 
great cupola on the cathedral. The Gothic cathedral in Milan, 
with its wilderness of statues, was begun in 1346. 

III. Spain and Portugal 

Historical Geography.— Resistance to the Arabs in Spain 
began in the northern mountainous region of Cantabria and 
Asturia, which even the West Goths had not wholly subdued, 
although Asturia was called Gothia. Asturia, a Christian 
principality (732), expanded into the kingdom called Leon 
(916), of which Castile was an eastern county. East of Leon, 
there grew up the kingdom of Navarre, mostly on the south- 
ern, but partly on the northern, side of the Pyrenees. On the 
death of Sancho the Great, it was broken up (1035). At about 
the same time the Ommiad caliphate was broken up into small 
kingdoms (1028). After the death of Sancho, or early in the 
eleventh century, we find in northern Spain, beginning on the 
west and moving eastward, the kingdom of Leon, the begin- 
nings of the kingdom of Castile, the reduced kingdom of 
Navarre, the beginnings of the kingdom of Aragon, and, be- 
tween Aragon and the Mediterranean, Christian states which 
had been comprised in the Spanish March over which the 
Franks had ruled. 

The two states which were destined to attain to the chief 
importance were Castile and Aragon. Of these, Castile was 
eventually to be to Spain what France was to all Gaul. Ulti- 
mately the union of Castile and Aragon gave rise to the great 
Spanish monarchy of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. 



RISE OF THE SPANISH KINGDOMS 331 

The foiir kingdoms of Leon, Castile, Aragon, and Navarre, 
after the death of Sancho, as time went on, were joined and 
disjoined among themselves in many different ways. Castile 
and Leon Avere finally nnited in 1230. Portugal, lying on 
the ocean, was partly recovered from the Arabs towards the 
close of the eleventh century, and was a county of Leon and 
Castile until, in 1139, it became a kingdom. Erom this time 
Castile, Aragon, and Portugal were the three antagonists of 
Moslem rule. Each of these kingdoms advanced. In the 
latter part of the thirteenth century, the Moslems were con- 
fined to the kingdom of Granada in the south, which was 
conquered by Castile and Aragon (1492), whose sovereigns, 
Ferdinand and Isabella, were united in marriage. Their king- 
doms were united in 1506.. In the latter part of the Middle 
Ages, Aragon, from its situation on the eastern coast, played 
an important part in the politics of Europe. Castile and 
Portugal led the way in maritime exploration. 

The Moors. — It has been already related (p. 229), that, after 
the fall of the Ommiad caliphate, African Mohammedans 
came over to the help of their Spanish brethren. These 
Moors did not supplant the Arabic speech or culture. There 
were two principal invasions of the Moors. 

Aragon; Navarre. — The kingdoms of Aragon and Castile ex- 
isted for centuries side by side. Aragon sought to extend its 
conquests along the eastern coast; Castile, to enlarge itself 
toward the south. James I., or James the Conqueror (1213- 
1276), joined the Moslem state of Valencia, by conquest, to 
his kingdom of Aragon, to which Catalonia had already been 
added. The union of these peoples developed a national char- 
acter of a definite type. In its -gxide of birth and of blood, 
its tenacious clinging to traditional rights, and in its esteem 
of military prowess before intellectual culture, it resembled 
the old Spartan temper. Peter III. (1276-1285), the son of 
James I., united with the three states Sicily, which, though 
it became a separate kingdom, gave to the house of Aragon 
its influence in southern Italy. After long wars with the 



332 SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 

Genoese, in the fourteenth century, Sardinia was acquired by 
Aragon. Navarre and Aragon became united under John II., 
second son of Ferdinand I., King of Aragon. John, by his 
marriage with Blanche of Navarre, shared her father's throne 
with her after his death. He was the father of Ferdinand 
the Catholic, under whose scepter the kingdoms of Aragon, 
Castile, and Navarre were brought together. 

Castile. — Ferdinand III. (St. Ferdinand, 1217-1252) gained 
important victories in his warfare Avith the Moors. By him, 
in 1230, the kingdoms of Castile and Leon were united. 
After a time civil war arose in Castile between rival claim- 
ants of the throne. A contest sprang up between the king 
and the nobles, who had grown in power. Henry III. 
(1390-1406), with the help of the Cortes, or general as- 
sembly, succeeded in humbling the nobility ; but under his 
two successors, the lords regained much of their strength, 
and the kingdom was again reduced to a state of anarchy. 
The frame of a constitutional government had been developed 
both in Aragon and Castile. The power of the king, of the 
general assembly, and of the nobles was nicely balanced ; but 
in Aragon the system was marred in the reign of Peter IV. 
(1336-1387), while in Castile the nobles proved themselves 
in the end to be stronger than the king. 

Portugal ; Commerce and Navigation. — Alfonso I., Count of 
Portugal, after a victory over the Moors (in 1130), was hailed 
as king by his army. He was acknowledged as independent 
by the King of Castile. He gave an excellent constitution 
and body of laws to his people. Soon after, he conquered 
Lisbon, and made it his capital. His son, Sancho I. (1185- 
1211), was distinguished both for his victories over the Moors 
and for his encouragement of tillage and of farm laborers. 
Until we reach the fifteenth century, Portuguese history is 
occupied with wars with the Moors and the Castilians, con- 
tests of the kings with the nobles, and struggles between 
rival aspirants for the throne, and between the sovereigns 
on the one hand and the clergy and the popes on the other. 



THE BALTIC LANDS 833 

About the beginning of tlie fourteenth century, there began 
a new era, in which the Portuguese became eminent for in- 
dustry and learning, and in commerce and navigation. Dio- 
nysius 111= founded the University of Lisbon. Alfonso TV. 
(1325-1357) continued on the same path. John I. (1385- 
1433) repelled a great invasion of the Castilians, in a battle 
near Lisbon, and became at first regent and then king. He 
was the founder of a new family. Madeira was discovered 
(1419), and by the burning of the forests was prepared for 
the cultivation of sugar cane and the vine. In 1432, the 
Portuguese occupied the Azores. A most active interest in 
voyages of discovery was taken by Prince Henry the Navi- 
gator (1394-1460). 

IV. The Scandinavian Countries 

The Baltic Lands, — Neither Spain nor Great Britain nor 
the Scandinavian peninsulas (Denmark, Norway, and Sweden) 
were included either in the empire of Charlemagne or in the 
Eastern Empire. The Germans and Scandinavians spread 
their dominion over the Aryan and non-Aryan tribes on the 
south and east of the Baltic. ^' The history of Sweden," 
says Mr. Ereeman, "mainly consists in the growth and the 
loss of her dominion in the Baltic lands out of her own 
peninsula. It is only in quite modern times that the union 
of the crowns, though not of the kingdoms, of Sweden and 
Norway has created a power wholly peninsular and equally 
Baltic and oceanic." It will be noted that E,ussia in modern 
days, having no oceanic character like Great Britain and 
Spain, has extended her dominion westward to the Baltic, 
but mainly to the east, over central Asia. She has built up 
a continental, instead of a maritime and colonial empire. 

Conversion of Scandinavia. — The conversion of Denmark 
to Christianity was completed in the eleventh century, under 
Canute. Sweden was converted in the same century, and 
Norway in the century preceding. After Canute YI. (1182), 



334 POLAND AND RUSSIA 

Waldemar II., the Victorious, Avho began the use of the Dan- 
ish standard, the Donnebrog, — a white cross on a blood-red 
fiekl, — made many conquests, which he had to give up, and 
which it was left for his successor, Waldemar III. (1340-1375), 
to regain. But this monarch, in conflict with the great mer- 
cantile confederacy, the Hanseatic League, was worsted (1372). 
The marriage of his daughter Margaret to the King of Norway, 
led to her becoming queen of both countries, and in 1388 she 
accepted the crown of Sweden. In 1397 the three kingdoms 
were united by the Union of Calmar. 

Sweden. — After centuries of war between Swedes and Goths 
in the northern part of the peninsula, political union began 
under Waldemar (1250-1275), in whose reign Stockholm was 
founded. After the reign of Magnus I. (1279-1290) a war 
ensued between his sons. In the struggles that followed, the 
nobles became supreme, and the crown, as just related, was 
given to Margaret of Norway and Denmark. 

Y. POLAXI) AND EUSSIA 

Poland: its Constitution The Poles derive their name from 

a word meaning j>/((i»s. Dwelling between the Oder and the 
Vistula, they had in the tenth century already acquired consid- 
erable power. The dynasty which bears the name of the legen- 
dary Duke Piast, continued in Poland until 1370, and in Silesia 
until 1675. The reigning duke was converted to Christianity 
and did homage to Otto I. (978). Boleslav I. (992) had him- 
self crowned king by his bishop, but he was excommunicated 
by Pope Gregory VII., who laid Poland under an interdict. 
Boleslav III., the Victorious (1102-1138), forced Christianity 
upon the Pomeranians. The Brethren of the Soldiers of Christ 
and the Teutonic Knights (two orders which were united about 
122G) carried on a long crusade against the Prussians, a heathen 
people who had attacked the Poles on the east as the Lithuan- 
ians had assailed them on the north. Casimir III., the Great 
(1333-1370), defeated the Russians, gave a code of laws to his 



RUSSIAN HISTORY 335 

people, and rescued Poland from anarchy. The accession of 
his nephew Louis, King of Hungary (1307-1382), terminated 
the long rivalry between Poland and Hungary. Under Vla- 
dislav II., Lithuania was joined to Poland, an event which 
doubled its territory. The misfortune of Poland was its politi- 
cal constitution. There was no burgher class, or "third es- 
tate." The sanction of the powerful nobles was necessary to 
the election of a king, while the burden of taxation fell upon 
the peasants. 

Russian History. — As Eussia, both in Europe and in Asia, is 
a territory of boundless plains, the great rivers which flow 
through it have been of immense importance in its history. 
" The whole history of this country," it has been said, " is the 
history of its three great rivers, and is divided into three 
periods — that of the Dneiper, with Kiev ; that of the Volga, 
with Moscow; and that of the Neva, with Novgorod in the 
eighth century, and St. Petersburg in the eighteenth." In the 
ninth century, there was probably little difference between 
the Eussian Slavonians and the Poles. The one people, how- 
ever, were molded by the Greek Church and civilization, and the 
other by the influence of the Latin Church of western Europe. 

The Northmen under Kurik had founded their dominion in 
Eussia. Novgorod was their center. Thence they pushed 
their conquests to the south. Their descendants made Kiev, 
on the Dneiper, their capital. In Eussia, as elsewhere, the 
Scandinavians quickly blended with their native subjects. 
Under Vladimir I. (980-1015), who was converted to Greek 
Christianity, with his people, they attained to considerable 
power; but the custom of the sovereigns to divide their do- 
minions among their sons, broke up their territory into a mul- 
titude of petty principalities. The result was a monotonous 
series of fierce contests, without any substantial result. In the 
midst of the bloody and profitless civil wars occurred the great 
invasion of the Mongols. For two centuries the Eussians con- 
tinued under the yoke of the Golden Horde, which the Mon- 
gols established on the Volga. They were obliged to pay trib- 



336 HUNGARY 

ute, and tlie Eussian princes at their accession had to swear 
fealty to the khan on the banks of the river Amoor. At the 
time of the Mongol conquest, Novgorod was the center of Eus- 
sian dominion. Towards the end of the thirteenth century, 
Moscow became a new center of Eussian power. From Moscow 
comes the name Muscovy. "Muscovy was to Eussia what 
France in the older sense was to the whole land which came 
to bear that name." In the fourteenth century, while Lithua- 
nia and Poland were absorbing by conquest the territories of 
western Eussia, the duchy of Moscow was building up a new 
Eussia in the east, out of which grew the Eussia of to-day. 
Ivan I., regarded as the founder of the Eussian monarchy, 
made Moscow his capital in 1328. Most of the other princes 
were subject to him. Demetrius (or Dimtri) I. gained two 
great victories over the Mongol horde (1378 and 1380) ; but in 
1382, they burned Moscow, and slew twenty-four thousand of 
its inhabitants. It was not until the reign of Ivan III., the 
Great '(1462-1505), that Novgorod submitted to Moscow, and 
Eussia was wholly delivered from the control and influence of 
the Mongols. 

VI. Hungary 

The Arpad Dynasty. — The Turanian Magyars, under Arpad, 
overran Hungary and Transylvania, but were defeated by the 
emperors Henry I. and Otto the Great. Their first king, St. 
Stephen, crowned by the consent of Pope Sylvester II. in the 
year 1000, established a political system and conferred high 
offices on the bishops. Important conquests were made by 
later kings. In the reign of Andrew II. (1205-1235) the 
nobles extorted the "Golden Bull," which conferred upon 
them extraordinary rights and privileges. When the last of 
the Arpad dynasty died, in 1301, a x^rince of the house of 
Anjou was chosen as his successor. His son and heir, Louis, 
who also succeeded to the crown of Poland in 1370, made 
Hungary a very powerful state. His daughter Maria reigned 
jointly with Sigismund, who afterwards became emperor. In. 



THE OTTOMAN TUKKS 337 

his time the invasions of the Turks began. The Hungarians 
were defeated by them at Yarna (1444). John Hunyady, who 
had several times defeated these enemies, was made general in 
chief in 1452. The Emperor Frederick III. began to inter- 
fere in Polish affairs. From time to time, great advantages 
were gained over the Turks, but they were lost again in the 
sixteenth century. 

YII. The Ottoman Turks 

Osman ; Murad I Towards the end of the thirteenth cen- 
tury, the Osman (or Ottoman) Turks, warlike nomad hordes, 
in order to escape from the Mongols, moved from the region 
east of the Caspian Sea, and conquered in Asia Minor the 
remnant of the kingdom of the Seljukians. Impelled by 
fanaticism and the desire of booty, Ottoman (or Osman), their 
leader, advanced into Bithynia, and took Pruse, or Broussa, 
one of the most important cities of Asia Minor. The Greeks, 
with their auxiliaries, were not able to dislodge him from 
his new possession. The Byzantine court was disabled from 
making an energetic effort for this end by the partisan rancor, 
and mingled lethargy and cruelty, which characterized the old 
age of the Greek Empire. Mcomedia, ISTicea, and Ilium were 
conquered by the Sultan (or Padishah). Murad I. (1361-1389) 
founded the corps of Janizaries, composed of select Christian 
youth chosen from the captives for their beauty and vigor. 
These became the most effective soldiers, — sometimes danger- 
ous, however, to the sultans themselves. Adrianople was 
taken by Murad, and made the seat of his authority. The 
Christian principalities of Thrace, and the ancient but depop- 
ulated cities founded by the Greeks and Eomans, were overrun. 
The Servians and Bulgarians made a stand against the fierce 
Ottoman warriors, but were beaten in a battle where Murad 
was slain. 

Bajazet. — Bajazet, .the son and successor of Murad, outdid 
his predecessor in his martial prowess. He conquered Mace- 



338 THE OTTOMAN TURKS 

clonia and Thessaly, and Greece to the southern end of Pelo- 
ponnesus. The Emperor Sigismund and John of Burgundy, 
with one hundred thousand men, were utterly defeated in the 
sanguinary battle of Nicopolis (1396). Sigismund escaped by 
sea ; the French counts and knights had to be redeemed from 
captivity with a large ransom ; and ten thousand prisoners of 
lower rank were slaughtered by Bajazet. Bosnia was now in 
the hands of the victor. Constantinople had to pay tribute, 
and seemed likely to become his prey, when a temporary 
respite was obtained for it by the coming of a host even more 
powerful than that of Bajazet. 

Mongolian Invasion. — Timur, or Tamerlane, a descendant of 
Genghis Khan, made himself master of the countries from the 
wall of China to the Mediterranean and from the boundaries 
of Egypt to Moscow. His path was marked with blood and 
ruin. At Delhi one hundred thousand captives were slain, so 
that his relative, the Great Mogul, might reign in security. 
At Bagdad in 1401 he amused himself by erecting a pyramid 
of ninety thousand heads. In Russia he conquered the Golden 
Horde, subdued Persia, and after penetrating Russia as far as 
Moscow (1390) undertook the conquest of Hindustan. With 
eight hundred thousand men — as the numbers are given — he 
met Bajazet at the head of an army of four hundred thousand 
Turks at Ancyra. The Ottomans were defeated. When Baja- 
zet as a prisoner was led into the presence of Tamerlane, he 
found the Mongol quietly playing chess with his son. The 
conqueror, after subduing all Asia Minor, was looking towards 
China as another field for invasion, but he died in 1405. 

Turkish Conquests ; the Greeks and Latins. — The empire of 
Tamerlane quickly fell to pieces, but the Ottoman power en- 
dured. Murad II. (1421-1451), the grandson of Bajazet, took 
up his projects of conquest. The Pope, notwithstanding relig- 
ious differences with the Greek Church, stirred up Christian 
princes to engage in war against the Turks. The defeat of 
Vladislar, King of Bohemia, and of John Hunyady at Varna, 
was followed by another Turkish victory at Kosovo in 1449. 



I 



FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE 339 

Fall of Constantinople — Murad II. was succeeded by his 
ambitious and unmerciful son, Mohammed II. (1451-1481), 
who determined tb^||^ Constantinople should be his capital. 
The city had seven thousand defenders, comprising two thou- 
sand Genoese and Venetians, who were commanded by an able 
Genoese general. The Emperor Constantine XII. worshiped 
according to the Eoman rites, while his court observed the 
Greek forms, and spurned a union with the hated Latin Chris- 
tians, whose help the emperor was to the end anxious to ob- 
tain. The city was stoutly defended for lifty-three days ; and 
when it could be held no longer against the furious assault of 
the Turks, the gallant Constantine, casting aside his golden 
armor, fell, bravely fighting, with the defenders on the ram- 
parts (May 29, 1453). Constantinople became the capital of 
the Turks. The crescent supplanted the cross, and the Church 
of St. Sophia was turned into a mosque. 

Turkish Government The Sultan, or padisliah, among the 

Turks is absolute master, and proprietor of the soil. There is 
no order of nobles, and there are no higher classes except the 
priests (imams) and the religious orders (dervishes). In the 
seraglio of the Sultan, with its palaces and gardens, the harem 
is separated from the other apartments. The grand vizier pre- 
sides over the council of ministers (divan). The provinces are 
governed by pashas with large powers. Beneath them is a 
gradation of inferior rulers in the subdivisions of the prov- 
inces. The mufti with his subordinate associates is a high 
authority on questions of religion and law. 

Changes in the Middle Ages. — Gradually in the Middle Ages 
the subjection of local rulers, or lords, to the will of the king 
brought to pass a centralizing of political authority. The mid- 
dle class of the people at the same time grew in power and 
self-respect. The serfs were enfranchised. The invention of 
gunpowder made the peasant on the battle-field a match for 
the mail-clad and mounted warrior. The clergy were now 
no longer the sole possessors of knowledge. There was an 
awakening of intellectual activity and a spirit of self-assertion. 



340 



THE PAPACY 




Popes in the Thirteenth Century. — If the most important eccle- 
siastical changes are passed in review, it will be observed that 
from Gregory VII. to Boniface VIII. — from near the end of 
the eleventh centnry to the beginning of the fourteenth cen- 
tury — the highest authority Avas 
claimed and exercised by the 
popes. Frederick Barbarossa, 
the greatest of the German 
emperors, held the stirrup of 
Hadrian IV., and humbled him- 
self before Alexander III. Inno- 
cent III. compared the popes to 
the sun, and kings to the moon. 
He took the part of umpire and 
judge in national conflicts. He 
excommunicated Philip Augus- 
tus of France, John of England, 
and other monarchs. Boniface 
VIII. asserted the complete sub- 
jection of secular to spiritual 
rule. The body of canon law 
was framed in accordance with these principles. 

The Babylonian Exile ; the Great Schism During the resi- 
dence of the popes at Avignon, there was great complaint on 
account of their dependence on France, as well as on other 
grounds. Gregory XL, to the joy of all good men, returned to 
Rome (1376). But at his death, two years later, a majority of 
the cardinals elected an Italian, Urban VI., in his place. The 
adherents of the French party made a protest, and chose a 
Genevan cardinal, under the name of Clement VII. Some 
countries adhered to Clement. This great schism of the West 
created sorrow and alarm among well-disposed Christian peo- 
ple. It tended to diminish the reverence felt for the papal 
office and to weaken its influence. 

The Reforming Councils. — The first important effort to termi- 
nate the division was made by the University of Paris. Three 



\ 




Innocent III. 



REFORMING COUNCILS 341 

great councils were held ; the first at Pisa (1409), the second 
at Constance (1414), and the third at Basle (1431). At the 
Council of Constance there were gathered not only a throng of 
prelates and inferior clergy, but also the Emperor Sigismund, 
and a multitude of princes, nobles, and spectators of every 
rank. "The whole world," it was said, "was there." The 
council aftirmed its own sovereign authority. The results of 
the two councils of Pisa and Constance, as regards the refor- 
mation of the Church, disappointed the hopes of those who 
were disaffected with the existing state of things. The Coun- 
cil of Basle exhibited the same spirit as that of Constance, and 
passed various measures in the interest of national churches, 
and for practical reforms. This council, however, broke into 
two parts ; and the hopes connected with it were likewise, to 
a great extent, frustrated. 

Had it been practicable for good men in the fifteenth cen- 
tury to unite in wholesome measures for promoting the purity 
and unity of the Church, the religious revolutions of the six- 
teenth century might hsrve been postponed, if not avoided. 



CHAPTER XLVI 

THE COUNTRIES OF EASTERN ASIA 

I. China 

The T'ang Dynasty (618-907) — The confusion in China, after 
the establishment of tlie three kingdoms, was brought to an 
end by the Sui dynasty, which, however, was of short duration. 
Between the Hans and the new epoch, beginning with the 
Twangs, diplomatic intercourse was begun with Japan ; Chris- 
tianity was introduced by the Nestorians ; a new impulse was 
given to the spread of Buddhism ; the first traces of the art of 
j)rinting are found; and the Yang-tse and the Yellow rivers 
were connected by a canal. 

Events in this Period. — Under the T'angs, the empire was 
united, peaceful, and prosperous. One of the most remarkable 
occurrences was the usurpation (649) and successful reign of a 
woman, the Empress Wu. Her policy was wise, and her gen- 
erals were victorious. The Emperor Hiuen Tsung had a long 
reign (713-756), and was an ardent patron of literature, but in 
his later years fell into immoral ways. Under this dynasty, 
there were productions in poetry of an excellence never sur- 
passed in China. Buddhism, although resisted by the Com- 
fucianists and Taouists, gained ground. A bone of Buddha 
was brought into China with great pomp and ceremony. Early 
in the reign of the T'angs, Mohammedanism first appeared in 
China. In the transition period before the accession of the 
next dynasty (900-960), the art of printing came more into 
use. The practice of cramping women's feet is said by some 
to have originated at this time. 

342 



JAPAN 343 

The Sung Dynasty (960-1280) In the early part of this era, 

China was prosperous. But the Tartars began their invasions ; 
and it was finally agreed that one of their tribes, which had 
helped to drive out another, should retain its conquests in the 
north. These Tartar conquerors, the Kins, were invaded by 
the Mongol Tartars under Genghis Khan (1213). After a long 
struggle, both the Kins and the Sungs were conquered by the 
Mongols, and the empire of Kublai Khan (1259-1294), the ruler 
of nearly all Asia, except Hindustan and Arabia, was estab- 
lished. Under the Sungs, a system of military drill for all the 
citizens was ordained. Literature flourished; Buddhism and 
Taouism concluded to live in peace with one another ; and the 
system of competitive examinations and literary degrees was 
more fully developed. After the complete conquest of China, 
the dominion of Kublai Khan lasted for about a century. The 
celebrated Venetian traveler, Marco Polo, visited his court. In 
this period, mathematics was more studied, and romances were 
first written. Three out of the Four Wonderful Books, Avhich 
are leading novels, were then composed. The Grand Canal was 
finished by Kublai Khan, and thus Peking was connected with 
Southern China. His great naval expedition against Japan 
failed. 

The Ming Dynasty (1368-1650). — Hung-wu, the son of a Chi- 
nese laborer, shook off the Mongol yoke, and founded a new 
dynasty with its capital at Nanking; whence it was after- 
wards transferred by the third emperor, Yung-lo (1403-1425), 
to Peking. He conquered and annexed Cochin China and Ton- 
quin, and even portions of Tartary. The Tartars continued 
their attack ; and in 1450 Ching-tung, the emperor, was taken 
prisoner, and held until he was released in consequence of a 
Chinese victory. 

II. Japan 

Changes in Government, — In the seventh century a.d., there 
began changes in Japan which resulted in a dual government, 
and eventually in a feudal system which continued until recent 



344 COUNTRIES OF EASTERN ASIA 

times. The Mikados retired from personal contact with their 
subjects ; and the power by degrees fell into the hands of the 
families related to the Mikado, and combined into clans. Mili- 
tary control was exercised by the generals (Shogu7is), and 
towards the end of the eighth century devolved on the two 
rival clans of Gen and Hei, or Taira and Minamoto. About 
the same time (770-780) the agricultural class became distinct 
from the military, and were compelled to labor hard for their 
support. One family by degrees absorbed the civil offices. 
It gradually sank into luxury. From the middle to the end 
of the twelfth century, there was terrible civil war between the 
Taira clan and the Minamoto clan, in which the former were 
destroyed. The military power passed from one family to 
another ; but a main fact is that the Shoguns acquired such a 
control as the Mayors of the Palace had possessed among the 
Franks. The Mikados lost all real j^ower, and the Shoguns or 
Tycoons had the actual government in their hands. In recent 
times (1868) a revolution occurred which restored to the Mikado 
the power which had belonged to him in the ancient times, be- 
fore the changes just related took place. 

Civil War; Feudalism. — The final struggle of the two clans, 
the Hei or Taira, and the Gen or Minamoto, was in the naval 
battle of Dannoura, in 1185, which was followed by the exter- 
mination of the Taira. Yoritomo, the victor, was known as the 
Shogun after 1192. The supremacy of his clan gave way in 
1219 to that of their adherents, the Hojo family, who ruled 
the Shogun and the emperor both. The invasion of the Mon- 
gol Tartars failed, their great fleet being destroyed by a ty- 
phoon (1281). The Hojo rule terminated, after a period of 
anarchy and civil war, in 1333. After the War of the Chrys- 
anthemums — so called from the imperial emblem, the chrys- 
anthemum — between two rival Mikados (1336-1392), there 
ensued a period of confusion and internal strife, lasting for 
nearly two centuries. In the course of these long contests 
there was gradually developed a system of feudalism, in which 
the daimios, or lords of larger or smaller principalities, owned 



INDIA 345 

a dependence, either close or more loose, on the Shogun. But 
feudalism was not fully established until early in the seven- 
teenth century. 

III. India 

Mohammedan States. — During the Middle Ages, India was 
invaded by a succession of Mohammedan conquerors. The 
first invasions were in the seventh century and the early part 
of the eighth. A temporary lodgment was effected in the 
province of Sind, on the northwest, in 711 ; but the Moslems 
were driven out by the Hindus in 750. The next invader was 
the Afghan Sultan, Mahmud of Ghazim, a Turk, who is said to 
have led his armies seventeen times into India. From his 
time the Punjab, except for a brief interval, has been a Mo- 
hammedan province. The last of his line of rulers was con- 
quered, and the Ghoride dynasty of the conqueror soon 
absorbed his dominion. One of the Ghoride rulers, Mo- 
hammed Ghori, the Shahab-ud-din of the Mohammedan 
writers, spread his dominion so that it reached from the 
Indus to the Brahmaputra. Then came the Slave dynasty, 
whose founder had been a Turkish slave. Its capital was 
Delhi. Of the Togluk dynasty, which gained the throne in 
1321, Mohammed Togluk (1325-1351) is said to have had the 
" reputation of one of the most accomplished princes and most 
furious tyrants that ever adorned or disgraced human nature.'^ 
Desiring to remove the seat of empire to the Deccan, he com- 
pelled the inhabitants of Delhi to leave their old home, and to 
make the journey of seven hundred miles. Ee volts in India 
made the triumph of Tamerlane easy (1398). The Mongol 
leader sacked Delhi, and made a full display of his unrivaled 
ferocity. A half century of anarchy followed this invasion. 



MODERN HISTORY 



3>®<C 



FROM THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE 
(1453) TO THE PRESENT TIME 



CHAPTER XLVII 

INTRODUCTION . 

Modern history as a whole, in contrast with mediaeval, is 
marked by several j)lainly defined characteristics. They are 
such as appear, however, in a less developed form, in the latter 
part of the Middle Ages. 

1. In the recent centuries, there has been an increased tend- 
ency to consolidate smaller states into larger kingdoms. 

2. There has been a gradual secularizing of politics. Gov- 
ernments have more and more cast off ecclesiastical control. 

3. As another side of this last movement, political unity in 
Europe has superseded ecclesiastical unity. The bond of union 
among nations, instead of being membership in one great eccle- 
siastical community, became political : it came to be member- 
ship in a loosely defined confederacy of nations, held together 
by treaties or by tacit agreement in certain accepted rules of 
public law and outlines of policy. 

4. In this system, one main principle is the balance of 
power. This means that any one state may be prevented 
from enlarging its bounds to such an extent as to endanger 
its neighbors. Such a principle was in vogue among the 

.347 



348 INTRODUCTION 

ancient states of G-reece. Even in the Middle Ages, as regards 
Italy, the popes endeavored to keep up an equilibrium. They 
supported the Norman kingdom in southern Italy, or the 
Lombard leagues in the north, as a counterpoise to the Ger- 
man emperors. In the sixteenth century, combinations were 
formed to check the power of Charles V., King of Spain and 
Emperor of Germany, and afterwards to restrain his successor 
on the Spanish throne, Philip II. In the seventeenth century, 
there were like combinations against Louis XIV. of France, 
and, in the present century, against the first Napoleon. 

5. The vast influence and control of Europe, by discovery, 
colonization, and commerce, in other quarters of the globe, is a 
striking feature of modern times 

6. With the increase of commerce and the growing power 
of the middle classes, there has arisen the Industrial Age. 
Interests connected with production and trade, and with the 
material side of civilization, have come into great prominence. 

7. Both the pursuits of men, and culture, have become far 
more diversified than was the case in the Middle Ages. 

8. The influence of Christianity in its ethical relations — as 
an instrument of political and social reform, and a motive to 
philanthropy — has become more active and conspicuous. 



PERIOD I. — FEOM THE PALL OP CONSTANTINOPLE TO 
THE EEPORMATION 

(1453-1517) 

CHAPTER XLVIII 

FRANCE ; ENGLAND ; SPAIN ; GERMANY ; ITALY ; THE OTTO- 
MAN TURKS ; RUSSIA ; THE INVASIONS OF ITALY 

The Consolidation of Monarchy ; Invention and Discovery ; the 
Renaissance. — In tliis period monarchy, especially in France, 
England, and Spain, acquires new strength and extension. 
The period includes the reigns of three kings who did much 
to help forward this change : Louis XI. of France, Henry VII. 
of England, and Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain. The Italian 
wars begin with the French invasion of Italy : the rivalship 
of the kingdoms, and the struggles pertaining to the balance 
of power are thus introduced. In this period fall new inven- 
tions which have altered the character of civilization, and great 
geographical discoveries, of which the discovery of the New 
World is the chief. It is the epoch, moreover, of the Kenais- 
sance, or the reawakening of learning and art. There is a new 
era in culture. All these movements and changes foretoken 
greater revolutions in the age that was to follow. 

I. France 

Charles VII. and the Nobles As a result of the Hundred Years' 

War, Aquitaine became incorporated in France. The kingdom 
was comparatively peaceful, and prosperity revived. On the 
east of France, Burgundy had expanded into a great European 

349 



350 FRANCE 

power. The Burgundian dukes were constantly striving to 
bring their boundary nearer and nearer to Paris. Charles had 
a standing quarrel with his son Louis, who early showed his 
power to inspire dread. He aroused such terror and aversion 
in his young wife, Margaret of Scotland, that she died at 
twenty-one of a broken heart. Louis encouraged the great 
lords in their resistance to his father's authority. In his last 
days Charles suspected that his son's plots were aided by per- 
sons of the royal household, and that his food was poisoned. 
He refused to eat, and died in 14G1. 

Character of Louis XI. (1461-1483) Louis XL showed him- 
self a master of statecraft, of the cunning management which 
pursued its ends stealthily, held no engagements sacred, and 
allowed no scruples of conscience to interfere with the attain- 
ment of a desired end. Shabby in his dress, and with a cun- 
ning aspect, he presented a sharp contrast to the chivalrous 
princes Philip and Charles of Burgundy. He took pleasure 
in the society of his provosts or hangmen. He was supersti- 
tious, and although he did not quail before an enemy in battle, 
the prospect of death in" his later years filled him with terror. 

Strife with the Nobles The first years of his reign were 

passed in a struggle with the nobles. He encountered the 
League of the Public Weal. He deemed it prudent to make 
peace with the League, trusting to his ability to regain by 
diplomacy ^vhatever he was compelled to surrender. In the 
meantime, Philip of Burgundy died, and his son Charles the 
Bold became the duke. He was in the prime of life, of a 
chivalrous temper, courteous and polished; fond of reading 
and music as well as of knightly sports. With certain noble 
qualities, his pride was excessive. His temper was hot and 
obstinate, and as he grew older, he became more overbearing 
and cruel. He was the most powerful prince in Europe. He 
first aimed to hem in Louis and to build up his own power in 
the direction of France. Louis, yielding to the treacherous ad- 
vice of Cardinal Balue, determined to go in person to Peronne 
to confer with Charles, who had allied himself with England 



» 



CHARLES THE BOLD 351 

and was threatening to invade France. Unluckily for tlie king, 
while lie was there, Liege broke out in a revolt to which its 
inhabitants had been incited by his agents. He found himself 
in the power of Charles, and when the latter was informed of 
his hostile intrigues, he insisted that Louis should forfeit all 
the territory that he had acquired. Louis was glad to escape 
with his life, and after his return he confined Balue in an iron 
cage for ten years — a mode of punishment of the cardinal's 
own invention. Louis repudiated the treaty that he had made 
with Charles, and in the war that followed, Louis gained cer- 
tain advantages which led him to conclude a truce with the 
Burgundian duke in 1472. 

Charles the Bold and the Swiss. — From this time Charles 
turned his attention eastward, where the freedom-loving in- 
habitants of the SavIss mountains were a barrier in the way of 
the extension of his territories in this direction. Availing him- 
self of a pretext, he made war upon them. He behaved with 
such cruelty that the Swiss attacked him with fury, and utterly 
routed his army. The next year Charles was again defeated, 
but in 1477 he risked another battle near IST anci, which he in- 
tended to make his capital. He was vanquished, however, and 
after the conflict his dead body was found near by in a swamp, 
stripped of its clothing, frozen and covered with wounds. In 
the plunder of his camp were plate and precious jewels, the 
value of which the plain peasants could not understand. Mary, 
the daughter of Charles, married Maximilian of Austria, who 
immediately became involved in a struggle with Louis, whose 
effort was to obtain as large a portion of Burgundy as possible. 
Louis and Maximilian concluded the treaty of Arras (1482), 
which left in the hands of France the towns on the Somme and 
the great Burgundian duchy. On the extinction of the house 
of Anjou Louis also annexed the three great districts of Anjou, 
Maine, and Provence. 

Last Days of Louis XI. — In his last days, old King Louis, in 
wretched health, tortured with the fear of death, and in con- 
stant dread of plots to destroy him, shut himself up in his 



352 ENGLAND 

gloomy castle, which he fortified and manned Avith guards who. 
were instructed to shoot all who approached without leave. 
He kept up his activity in management, and in truth devised 
schemes for the advantage of his realm. He died in 1483, at 
the age of sixty-one. He, more than any other, was the founder 
of the Trench monarchy in its later form. He centralized the 
administration of the government. He fought against feudal- 
ism, old and new. He strengthened, however, local authority 
where it did not interfere Avith the power of the king. In 
matters of internal government he Avas often just and Avise. 

Charles VIII. (1483-1498). — During the minority of Charles 
YIII. his older sister Anne managed public affairs. By her 
the nobles Avere driven for support to ally themselves Avith 
Kichard III. of England. Her armies defeated the Duke of 
Brittany and his allies in 1488, and she succeeded in bring- 
ing about a marriage betAveen Charles and Anne of Brittany 
which finally resulted in uniting Brittany Avith France. 

II. EXGLAXD 

Wars of the Roses ; the House of York. — The croAvn in Eng- 
land had- come to be considered as the property of a family, 
to Avhich the legitimate heir had a sacred claim. The Wars 
of the Roses (1455-1485) grcAv out of family riA^alries. It Avas 
a fight among nobles. But other reasons were not Avithout 
influence. The party of York (AAdiose badge Avas the AAdiite 
rose) Avas the popular party, Avhich had its strength in Kent 
and in the trading cities. It favored a reform of government. 
The party of Lancaster (avIiosc badge Avas the red rose) Avas 
the more conservative party, having its strength among the 
barons of the north. Richard, Duke of York, thought that 
he had a better claim to the English croAvn than Henry YL, 
because his ancestor Lionel, son of EdAvard III,, Avas older than 
his brother John of Gaunt, the ancestor of Henry. After sev- 
eral turns of fortune, Richard's eldest son, EdAvard — EdAvard 
IV. (1461-1483) — Ava.s victorious, imprisoned Henry VI. , Avdio 



itif 



WAES OF THE ROSES 353 

had fallen into imbecility, and took possession of the throne. 
He triumphed in the battle of Towton (1471). Henry VI. 
was secretly nmrdered in the Tower. The house of York was 
now in the ascendant. It was during the reign of Edward lY. 
that Caxton set up the first printing press in England. 

After Edward, his brother reigned, Eichard III. (1483-1485), 
a brave but merciless man, who made his way to the throne by 
the death of the two young princes Edward and Richard, whose 
murder in the Tower he is with good reason supposed to have 
procured. He had pretended that Edward lY. had never been 
lav^fully married to their mother. Henry Tudor, Earl of Eich- 
mond, descended by his mother from John of Gaunt, aided 
by Erance, landed in Wales, and won a victory at Bosworth 
over the adherents of the white rose, — a victory which gave 
him a kingdom and a crown. Thus the house of Lancaster in 
the person of Henry YII. (1485-1509), gained the throne. 
He married Elizabeth, the eldest daughter of Edward lY., and 
so the two hostile houses were united. He was the first of 
the Tudor kings. His title was recognized by Parliament and 
was sanctioned by the Pope. 

Character of the Civil Wars. — The Wars of the Eoses are, in 
certain respects, peculiar. They extended over a long period, 
but did not include more than three years of actual fighting. 
The battles were fierce, and the combatants unsparing in the 
treatment of their foes. Yet the po^^ulation of the country 
did not diminish. Business and the administration of justice 
went on as usual. Trade began to be held in high esteem, 
and traders to amass wealth. The number of journeymen and 
day laborers increased, and there was a disposition to break 
through the guild laws. 

Effects of the Civil Wars The most striking result of the 

civil wars was the strengthening of the x^ower of the king. 
Not more than thirty of the old peers survived. Laws were 
made forbidding the nobles to keep armed retainers ; and 
against maintenance, or the custom of nobles to promise to 
support, in their quarrels or law-cases, men who adhered to 



354 



THE TUDORS AND STUARTS 



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SPAIN 355 

them. The court of the Star Chamber was set up to prevent 
these abuses. It was turned into an instrument of tyranny in 
the hands of the kings. Henry VII. extorted from the rich 
benevolences, or gifts solicited by the king, which the law 
authorized him to collect as a tax. He contrived to get 
money in such ways, and thus to carry forward the govern- 
ment without Parliament, which met only once during the last 
thirteen years of his reign. Eoyal power, in relation to the 
nobles, was further exalted by the introduction of cannon, 
which only the king possessed, into warfare. Henry kept 
watch over his enemies at home and abroad, and punished 
all resistance to his authority. Circumstances enabled the 
founder of the Tudor line to exalt the power of the king 
over the heads of both the nobles and the commons. English 
liberty suffered a long eclipse, lasting until the downfall of the 
Stuarts. 

III. Spain 

Ferdinand of Aragon (1479-1516). — The marriage of Ferdi- 
nand and Isabella resulted in a personal union between Aragon 
and Castile, the rights of sovereignty still remaining distinct. 
They accomplished the feat of bringing both nobles and clergy 
into subjection. The sovereigns directed their attention to 
the Moorish kingdom of Granada, the capital of which, with 
its famous castle of the Alhambra, . was captured in 1492, 
after a ten years' bloody war. In spite of promises that the 
Moors should enjoy religious freedom, they were for years 
subjected to frightful persecution, 'and their sufferings form 
a long and dismal chapter of Spanish history. The dethroned 
Moorish king, Boabdil, fled to Africa, where he fell in battle. 
Choice was given to the Moslems to become Christians or 
to emigrate. The professed converts were goaded by cruel 
treatment into repeated insurrections. It was a fierce war 
of races and religions. Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand and 
Isabella, had become Queen of Castile in right of her mother. 
Her mind became disordered, however, and her father, Fer- 



356 



SPAIN 



dinand, was made regent of the kingdom ; and for many years^ 
he administered the government with wisdom and modera- 




CouRT OF THE Lions {AUutiith/un 

tion. He availed himself of the distnrbances of France to 
annex to Castile the portion of Xavarre lying on the south 
of the Pvrenees. 



GERMANY AND ITALY 357 

TV. Germany and the Empire 

Frederick III. (1440-1493). — While Englandj France, and 
Spain were organizing monarchy, Italy and Germany became 
the prey of other nations as a resnlt of keeping up the anar- 
chical condition of the Middle Ages. Frederick III. was the 
last emperor crowned at Eome. He lacked energy, neglected 
the empire, and busied himself in enlarging his Austrian do- 
mains. Without any help from him, the Hungarians, under 
John Hunyady, drove the Turks from Belgrade in 1456. The 
Turks were now the great danger to Europe. The efforts of 
the emperor to obtain the Bohemian and Hungarian crowns 
were unsuccessful. By the Peace of Thorn (1454) the west- 
ern part of Prussia was taken from the Teutonic Knights, and 
annexed to Poland. 

Maximilian I. (1493-1519). — Maximilian I. was a restless 
prince, eager for adventure. Although not crowned, he was au- 
thorized by Pope Julius II. to style himself Emperor Elect. 
He married Mary of Burgundy, daughter of Charles the Bold. 
In his reign efforts were made to secure peace and order in 
Germany. His grandson Ferdinand, who succeeded him, mar- 
ried the sister of Louis II., who united in himself the crowns 
of Bohemia and of Hungary. Ferdinand was elected to suc- 
ceed Maximilian (1526), and these countries were thus added 
to the vast possessions of the Austrian family. 

V. Italy 

Condition of Italy. — In Italy, national unity was wanting. 
The country was menaced by the Ottoman Turks, and by the 
kings of France and Spain. At the same time, voyages of 
discovery were threatening to open ncAv highways of commerce 
to supersede the old routes of traffic which had made the 
Italian cities the most opulent and splendid in Europe. The 
fall of Constantinople, indeed, had led the principal Italian 
states in 1454 to take an oath of perpetual concord. Conflicts 



358 



THE MEDICI 



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P^S? 






ITALY 359 

soon arose, however, among the parties to this agreement, and 
the Turks took advantage of their quarrels to capture Otranto 
(1480), killing or enslaving twelve thousand Christians. Ven- 
ice, which had been the strongest of the Italian states, became 
involved in war with the Turks, and was compelled to make a 
shameful treaty with them and to pay them a large sum of 
money (1479). In Florence the members of his family who 
followed Cosmo de Medici behaved more as princes, while he 
to the end had been a man of the people. One of them, Lo- 
renzo, earned for himself the name of The Magnificent by 
his lavish patronage of literature and art. Against his rule 
the voice of the eloquent Dominican monk Jerome Savonarola 
was raised in earnest protest. He sought not only to move 
individuals to repentance, but to bring about a thorough 
amendment of public morals. At this time Florence presented 
striking points of resemblance to Athens in its most flourish- 
ing days. Trade and the mechanic arts were in high repute. 
Industry was widely diffused. Florence, however, was not a 
conquering power, and had no extensive dominion. The 
Florentines of the fifteenth century compare well with the 
Athenians in the age of Pericles in equality and pride of citi- 
zenship, in versatility of talent and intellectual activity, in 
artistic genius and in joyous social life. In Naples Ferdi- 
nand I. was reigning during this period. He treated his 
barons with treachery, and he ruled his people with injustice 
and cruelty. 

The Popes. — The Popes Nicholas V. (1447-1455), a pro- 
tector of scholars and a cultivated man, and Pius II. (1458- 
1464), vainly attempted to organize crusades against the 
Turks. In the last half of the fifteenth century, the prev- 
alent spirit of worldliness among princes within and without 
Italy infected the Church and its rulers. Worldly schemes 
and nepotism, as the projects for the temporal advancement of 
their relatives were termed, engrossed attention. 

Weakness of Italy. — Italy, at the close of the fifteenth cen- 
tury, with all its proficiency in art and letters, and its supe- 



360 RUSSIA 

riority in the comforts and elegance of life, was a prey to 
anarchyo This was especially true after the death of Lorenzo 
de Medici. Diplomacy had become a school of fraud. IJattles 
had come to be, in general, bloodless ; but either perfidy, or 
prison and the dagger, were the familiar instruments of war- 
fare. The country, from its beauty, its wealth, and its factious 
state, was an alluring prize to foreign invaders. 

YI. The Ottoman Turks. 

Their Conquests. — Mohammed II. (1451-1481) conquered 
the Greek Empire. The Hungarians defended the line of the 
Danube against the Turkish assaults. xVn intrepid prince of 
Albania for twenty-three years held the Moslems in check. 
In 1517, the conquest of Alexandria by the Sultan Selim in- 
flicted a mortal blow on the commerce of Venice by intersect- 
ing its communication with the Orient. Selim and Mohammed 
II. built up the enormous Ottoman Empire, which stretched 
from the Danube to the Euphrates, and from the Adriatic to 
the cataracts of the Xile. They take rank among the most 
eminent tyrants in Asiatic history. Each of them combined a 
genius for rule with a taste for science and poetry. 

YII. EuSSTA 

Russia; Ivan III. — Ivan III., the Great (1462-1505), lib- 
erated Russia from the Tartar conquerors, the Golden Horde. 
He was a cold, calculating man who preferred to negotiate 
rather than to fight ; but he inflicted savage punishments, and 
even " his glance caused Avomen to faint." Moscow became a 
prosperous city. In it Ivan laid out the fortified enclosure 
styled the Kremlin. He brought into the country German and 
Italian mechanics. He it Avas Avho founded the greatness of 
Russia. 

Ivan IV. ( 1 533-1 584). — In 1553 Ivan IV., the Terrible, suc- 
ceeded to the throne. He first took the title of Czar. He con- 
quered the Tartars and made a commercial treaty with Queen 



RUSSIA 



361 



Elizabeth of England. One of his Cossack chiefs conquered Si- 
beria. The Czar put down aristocracy, and crushed all resist- 
ance to his personal rule. He laid the foundation of a standing 
army, and though he was tyrannical and cruel, he prevented 




The Kkemlin (Momoio)-—, 



Eussia from becoming an anarchic kingdom like Poland. The 
Cossacks, of whom Irmak was a noted chieftain, were fierce 
robber warriors, partly Tartar and partly Russian. They were 
brought into subjection by Ivan. The Czar himself mingled 
brutal and sensual practices with exercises of i^iety. In a fit 



362 



RUSSIA 



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CO 5) 












2 O 



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-2-3 £--^ 



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2 ^ ^ 



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ITALY 363 

of wrath lie struck his son Ivan a fatal blow, and was over- 
whelmed with sorrow in consequence. During the reigns of 
his immediate successors, there were internal dissensions in 
A^^hich the Poles interfered. In 1611, however, they were 
driven out of the country, and Michael Romanoff (1613-1645), 
the founder of the present dynasty of czars, was raised to the 
throne. 

VIII. French Invasions of Italy 

Motives of the Invasion The establishment of absolute 

monarchy in western Europe placed the resources of each 
nation at the service of its king. A desire for national ag- 
grandizement made itself felt, and a series of European wars 
began, of which the invasion of Italy by the French king, 
Charles VIIL, was the first. Through the house of Anjou, 
Charles laid claim to the throne of Naples. Crossing the Alps 
with a large army in 1494, he made rapid progress and caused 
himself to be crowned King of Naples, Emperor of the East, 
and King of Jerusalem, for it was a part of his plan to attack 
and conquer the Turks. The Italian princes, however, united 
with Ferdinand, Maximilian, and Henry VIIL of England to 
check the power of France. They soon compelled the French 
to withdraw from Italy, and the conquests of Charles were lost 
as speedily as they were gained. 

Louis XII. (1498-1515). — The Italian states were, however, 
still involved in civil strife. Savonarola had been excommuni- 
cated by Alexander YI., and the combination of parties against 
him caused his death in 1498. The condition of the country 
tempted Louis of Orleans, King of France, to renew the at- 
tempt at an Italian invasion. He had succeeded Charles VIIL, 
who left no male children. Like Charles, Louis gained tem- 
porary advantages. Having secured the cooperation of Ferdi- 
nand of Spain in an attack upon Naples, he expected to divide 
the kingdom with him. Ferdinand^s treachery, however, 
caused the kingdom to fall into the hands of a Spanish general, 
Gronsalvo de Cordova. Louis led an army against him. 



364 FRENCH INVASIONS OF ITALY 

Anxious for revenge, notwithstanding the gallantry of Bay- 
ard, the pattern of chivalry, the French knight "without 
fear and without reproach," the French were defeated. In a 
third Italian war, Louis was almost as unsuccessful. This 
last struggle, however, which lasted eight years (1507-1515), 
was the most important of the three. During its j^rogress. Pope 
Julius 11. organized the League of Cambray, between himself, 
the Emperor Maximilian, the kings of France and of Aragon, 
for the purpose of humbling Venice. The League at first 
defeated the Venetians, but the Pope then made peace with 
them, and organized a new league for the expulsion from Italy 
of his former allies, the French. The old Pontiff himself took 
the field in the dead of winter. Though defeated, he formed 
the Holy League with Venice, Ferdinand of Aragon, and 
Henry VIII. of England, against France. James IV. of Scot- 
land made a diversion in favor of France, but was beaten and 
slain at Flodden Field (1513). The Swiss joined the league, 
and the French met with defeat. Finally a peace was con- 
cluded, which ultimately resulted in the triumph of the policy 
of Pope Julius II. and the expulsion of the French from Italy. 



CHAPTER XLIX 

INVENTION AND DISCOVERY; THE RENAISSANCE 

The term Eenaissance is frequently applied not only to 
the new birth of art and letters, but to all the character- 
istics taken together of the period of transition from the 
Middle Ages to modern life. We have glanced at some of 
the political manifestations of the new life upon which the 
world seemed to be entering: it remains to note the opera- 
tion of "the intellectual energy, the spontaneous outburst of 
intelligence," which enabled mankind to make use of arts and 
inventions, knowledge and books. 

Inventions. — The most important inventions of the four- 
teenth and fifteenth centuries were gunpowder, the mariner's 
compass, and printing by movable types. An explosive ma- 
terial like gunpowder seems to have been in use among the 
Indians in the East as early as Alexander the Great, and also 
to have been known to the Chinese and the Arabs. It was 
first brought into use in firearms in the middle of the four- 
teenth century. The theory which gives credit for the in- 
vention to Schwartz, a monk of Freiburg, seems to be without 
foundation. The effect of the introduction of gunpowder was 
to make infantry an effective force and to put the peasant on 
a par with the knight. 

The properties of the magnetic needle were known as early 
as the fourteenth century, when the compass came into gen- 
eral use. It now became possible for the sailor to leave the 
Mediterranean and to spread his sails upon the ocean itself 
without danger of losing himself upon the boundless waste. 

Printing with movable types was probably first done by 
John Gutenberg of Mainz, who spent much of his life 

365 



366 



INVENTIOX AND DISCOVERY 




at Strassburg. To some extent, printing had been done on 
wooden blocks before liis time, but he brought the art to such 

perfection that, in 1456, a 
complete Latin Bible was 
printed. He was furnished 
with capital by an associ- 
ate, Faust, and he worked 
in company with a skill- 
ful copyist of manuscripts. 
Printing presses were soon 
set uj) in all the princi- 
pal cities of Germany and 
Italy ; linen and cotton 
paper took the place of 
costly parchment ; books 
(iuTEMiEK.. were no longer confined to 

the rich ; and thought trav- 
eled from city to city and from land to land. Maximilian 
founded a postal system in German}^, and Louis XL did the 
same service for France. 

New Route to India. — The discovery by the Portuguese 
of the islands of Porto Santo and Madeii-a (1419-1420), of 
the Canary Islands and the Azores, was followed by their 
discovery of the coast of Upper Guinea, with its gold dust, 
ivory, and gums (1445). The Pope, to whom was accorded 
the right to dispose of the heathen and of newly discovered 
lands, granted to the Portuguese the possession of these re- 
gions, and of whatever discoveries they should make as far 
as India. From Lower Guinea (Congo), Bartholomew Diaz 
reached the southern point of Africa (1486), which King 
John II. named the Cape of Good Hope. Then, ujider Eman- 
uel the Great (1495-1521), Yasco da Gama found the way to 
East India, around the Cape, by sailing over the Indian Ocean, 
to the coast of Malabar, and into the harbor of Calcutta (1498). 
The Portuguese encountered the resistance of the ^lohamme- 
dans to their settlement; but by their valor and persistency, 



DISCOVEEY OF AMERICA 



367 



especially by the agency of tlieir brave leaders, their trading 
posts were established on the coast. 

Discovery of America. — Before the success of the Portu- 
guese enterprises, the conviction that India could be reached 
by sailing in a westerly direction took possession of the 
mind of Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa. John 
II. of Portugal and 

Henry VII. of Eng- ^^WSf^^^^^^^^W^^ 
land were applied to 
for funds with which 
to provide an equip- 
ment for a voyage of 
discovery. His efforts 
in these quarters hav- 
ing proved unsuccess- 
ful. Queen Isabella of 
Castile, to whom Gra- 
nada had just submit- 
ted (1492), furnished 
him with three ships, 
— the Nina, the Pinta, 
and the Santa Maria. 
Columbus was to have 
the station of grand 
admiral and viceroy 
over the lands to be 

discovered, with a tenth part of the incomes to be drawn 
from them, and the rank of a nobleman for himself and his 
posterity. The story of an open mutiny on his vessels does 
not rest on sufiicient proof. That there was alarm and dis- 
content among the sailors may well be believed. On the 11th 
of October, Columbus thought that he discovered a light in 
the distance. At two o'clock in the morning of October 12, 
a sailor on the Pinta espied the dim outline of the beach, and 
shouted, '^ Land, land ! " It was an island called Guanahani. 
Columbus gave it the name of San Salvador in honor of the 




CoLu: 



368 



INVENTION AND DISCOVERY 



Savior. Its beauty and productiveness excited admiration ; 
but neither here nor on the large islands of Cuba (or Juana) 
and Hayti (Hispaniola), which were discovered soon after, 
were there found the gold and precious stones which the 
navigators and their patrons at home so eagerly desired. 




The Pinta 



Columbus built a fort on the island of Hispaniola, and 
founded a colony. The name of West Indies was applied to 
the new lands. Columbus lived and died in the belief that 
the region which he discovered belonged to India. Of an 
intermediate continent, and of an ocean beyond it, he did not 
dream. 



THE NEW WORLD 369 

The Pope granted to Ferdinand and Isabella all the newly 
discovered regions of America, from a line stretching one hun- 
dred leagues west of the Azores. Afterwards Ferdinand con- 
ceded to the king of Portugal that the line should run three 
hundred and seventy leagues west of the Cape Yerde Islands. In 
two subsequent voyages (1493-1496, 1498-1500), Columbus dis- 
covered Jamaica and the Little Antilles, the Caribbean Islands, 
and finally the mainland at the mouths of the Orinoco (1498). 

In 1497 John Cabot, a Venetian captain living in England, 
while in quest of a northwest passage to India, touched at 
Cape Breton, and followed the coast of North America south- 
ward for a distance of nine hundred miles. Shortly after, 
Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine, employed first by Spain, and 
then by Portugal, explored in several voyages the coast of 
South America. The name America, at first attached to his 
discoveries, was at length extended to the whole western 
hemisphere. 

Later Voyages of Columbus. — On his return from his first 
voyage, Columbus was received with distinguished honors by 
the Spanish sovereigns. But he suffered from plots caused by 
envy, both on the islands and at court. Once he was sent 
home in fetters. The promises which had been made to him 
were not fulfilled„ A fourth voyage was not attended by the 
success in discovery which he had hoped for, and the last two 
years of his life were weary and sad. Isabella had died ; and 
in 1506 the great explorer, who with other virtues combined a 
sincere piety, followed her to the tomb. I 

The Pacific. — The spirit of adventure, hunger for wealth and 
especially for the precious metals, and zeal for the conversion 
of the heathen, were the motives which combined in different 
proportions to set on foot exploring and conquering expeditions 
to the unknown regions of the west. The exploration of the 
North American coast, begun by John Cabot, Sebastian Cabot 
(1498), and the Portuguese Cortereal (1501), continued from 
Labrador to Florida. In 1513, Balboa, a Spaniard at Darien, 
fought his way to a height on the Isthmus of Panama, whence 



870 INVENTION AND DISCOVERY 

he descried the Pacific Ocean. Descending to the shore, and 
riding into the water np to his thighs, in the name of the king 
he took possession of the sea. In 1520 Magellan, a Portuguese 
captain, sailed around the southern cape of America, and over 
the ocean to wliich he gave the name of Pacific. A little later 
the Spaniards added first Mexico, and then Peru, to their 
dominions. 

Conquest of Mexico. — The Spanish conqueror of Mexico, the 
land of the Aztecs, Avas Hernando Cortez (1485-1547). The 
principal king in that country was Montezimia, whose empire 
was extensive, with numerous cities, and with no inconsider- 
able advancement in arts and industry. From Cuba, in 
1519, Cortez conducted an expedition composed of seven hun- 
dred Spaniards, founded Vera Cruz, where he left a small gar- 
rison, subdued the tribe of Tlascalans, who joined him, and 
was received by Montezuma into the city of Mexico. Cortez 
made him a prisoner in his own palace, and seized his capital. 
The firearms and the horses of the Spaniards struck the na- 
tives with dismay. Nevertheless, they made a stout resistance. 
To add to the difficulties of the shrewd and valiant leader, a 
Spanish force was sent from the West Indies to supplant him. 
This force he defeated, and captured Narvaez, their chief. 
The city of Mexico was recaptured by Cortez (1521) ; for Mon- 
tezuma had been slain by his own j^eople, and the Spaniards 
driven out. The new king was taken prisoner and put to 
death, and the country Avas subdued. Cortez put an end to 
the horrid religious rites of the Mexicans, which included 
human sacrifices. Becoming an object of jealousy and dread 
at home, he was recalled (1528). Afterwards he visited the 
peninsula of California, and ruled for a time in Mexico, but 
with diminished authority. 

Conquest of Peru. — The conquest of Peru was effected by 
Francisco Pizarro and Almagro, both illiterate adventurers, 
equally daring with Cortez, but more cruel and unscrupulous. 
The Peruvians were of a mild character, prosperous, and not 
uncivilized, and Avithout the savage religious system of the 



THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING 371 

Mexicans. They had their walled cities and their spacious 
temples. The empire of the Incas, as the rulers were called, 
was distracted by a civil war between two brothers, who shared 
the kingdom. Pizarro captured one of them, and basely put 
him to death. Pizarro founded Lima, near the seacoast (1535). 
Almagro and Pizarro fell out with each other, and the former 
was defeated and beheaded. The land and its inhabitants were 
allotted among the conquerors as the spoils of victory. The 
horrible oppression of the people excited insurrections. At 
length Charles V. sent out Gasca as viceroy (1541), at a time 
when Gonzalo Pizarro, the last of the family, held sway. Gon- 
zalo perished on the gallows. Gasca reduced the government 
to an orderly system. 

The Amazon. — Orellena, an officer of Pizarro, in 1541, first 
descended the river Amazon to the Atlantic. His fabulous 
descriptions of an imaginary El Dorado, whose capital with its 
dazzling treasures he pretended to have seen, inflamed other 
explorers and prompted new enterprises. 

The Revival of Learning. — A characteristic of the new in- 
tellectual life which was in the meantime animating Europe 
was the thirst for a wider range of study and of culture than 
was afforded by the theological writings and training of the Mid- 
dle Ages. Petrarch, the Italian poet (1304-1374) did much to 
foster this new spirit. In the fifteenth century, and especially 
before the fall of Constantinople, learned Greeks came into 
Italy, bringing precious manuscripts of the ancient authors with 
them. Wealthy men became patrons of learning. Cosmo de' 
Medici founded a library and a Platonic academy at Florence. 
Dictionaries, grammars, and commentaries for instruction in 
classical learning, as well as the writings of the ancient 
poets, philosophers, and orators themselves, were given to the 
world from the new printing presses of which that of Aldus 
Minutius — the Aldine — at Venice was the most famous. But 
the new culture and the Humanists, as its devotees were called, 
had to struggle with the " obscurantists," as the votaries of the 
mediaeval type of culture were nicknamed. In England, the 



372 THE RENAISSANCE 

new learning was welcomed by such able men as Colet, Dean of 
St. Paul's, and Thomas More, afterwards lord chancellor under 
Henry YIII. In Germany, the leader of humanism was John 
Reuchlin (1455-1522), who was intimate with famous scholars 
at Florence. He carried to a successful conclusion a contest 
with a conservative class who were hostile to the new studies. 

Erasmus. — The prince of the Humanists was Desiderius 
Erasmus (1457-1536). ISTo literary man has ever enjoyed a 
wider fame during his own lifetime. Witty and learned, his 
books were eagerly read in all civilized countries. He had 
studied theology in Paris, and in England he had spent much 
time with More and Colet. In his Praise of Folly, and in his 
Colloquies, he lashes the foibles and sins of all classes, not 
sparing the clergy and the kings. He adhered to the Eoman 
communion. Through his edition of the Church Fathers, and 
his edition of the Greek Testament, as well as by his corre- 
spondence, he exerted a powerful influence in behalf of cul- 
ture. He wrote in Latin, the language of the educated. The 
study of the ancient authors tended to check, for the while, 
original production in literature. In Italy, however, there 
were at least three great authors who wrote in the national 
language — the poet Ariosto (1474-1533), Machiavelli, the 
diplomatist and statesman, and Guicciardini^ the historian 
(1482-1540). 

Renaissance of Art. — The new era was marked by an awaken- 
ing in art similar to that which has been observed in explo- 
ration and in literature. In architecture and sculpture, the 
influence of classical styles was powerful. Brunelleschi (1377- 
1446) built the Pitti Palace, and the famous Cathedral at Flor- 
ence. The great Michelangelo Buonarroti (1465-1564) was a 
master of painting, sculpture, and architecture, and was a poet 
as well. As a sculptor, his Avork is seen to best advantage in 
the statue of Moses at Rome, and the sepulchers of Julian 
and Lorenzo de' Medici at Florence. The Florentine artist 
Ghiberti (1378-1455) exhibited the perfection of bas-relief 
in the bronze gates of the Baptistery. In painting, Giotto had 



INVENTION AND DISCOVERY 



373 




Michelangelo 



been the greatest name in the earlier days of the fourteenth 
century. Eaphael (1483-1520) is, except Michelangelo, the 
greatest name in the history of 
Italian art. Perhaps his most 
celebrated work is the Madonna 
di San Sisto, which is now in the 
Dresden Gallery. Era Angelico 
(1387-1455), a devont monk, had 
transferred to canvas the ten- 
derness and fervor of his own 
gentle spirit. 

To the A^enetian school be- 
longed, in the sixteenth century, 
Titian, who died in 1576, Paul 
Veronese, and Tintoretto. Leo- 
nardo da Vinci (1452-1519) and ^ 
Correggio (1494-1534) belong 
to the Lombard school. Guido Eeni and Salvator Eosa were 
disciples of the school of Bologna. 

In the Netherlands, a school of painting was formed under 
the influence of the brothers Van Dyck (1366-1426, 1386- 
1440). One of them, John, was the first artist to paint in 
oil. Of the later masters in the Netherlands, Eubens (1577- 
1640) and Eembrandt (1607-1669) are the most eminent. In 
Germany, in the former half of the sixteenth century, Hans 
Holbein and Albert Durer made their names famous; while 
in Spain, Murillo and Velasquez (1599-1660), and in France, 
Claude Lorraine, won for themselves an exalted place on the 
roll of artists. In England, the strong work of the humorist 
Hogarth belongs to a later day. He died in 1764. 

Music, in the meantime, shared in the prosperity of the sister 
arts. In the sixteenth century, the genius and labors of the 
Italian, Palestrina, constitute an epoch. The lives of the great 
German composers Bach (1685-1750) and Handel (1685-1759) 
belong mainly to the eighteenth century, but they are in some 
degree the fruit of seed sown earlier. 



PEKIOD IL — THE ERA OF THE EEFOEMATION 
(1517-1648) 

CHAPTER L 

THE KEFORMATION IN GERMANY, TO THE TREATY OF 
NUREMBERG (1517-1532) 

Beginning of the Reformation. — Martin Luther, the son of a 
poor miner, was born in Eisleben in 1483. An Augustinian 
monk, he had been made a professor of tlieology and a preacher 
at Wittenberg, by the Elector of Saxony, Erederick the Wise 
(1508). Luther was a man of remarkable intellectual powers 
and a hard student. He had been long afflicted with profound 
religious anxieties. In the study of St. Paul and St. Augus- 
tine, after much inward wrestling, he emerged into a state of 
mental peace. In the early days of the sixteenth century, 
there was in Germany much discontent with the spirit of world- 
liness which at that time infected the rulers of the Church. 
Gross abuses in connection Avith penances and the disposal of 
indulgences were painful to sincere friends of religion. " In- 
dulgence" was a theological term, derived from the Roman 
law, where it meant remission of a penalty or of a tax. As 
used in the Church, it meant the remission of the penances, or 
temporal punishments, which were imposed upon penitent of- 
fenders in the system of ecclesiastical discipline. The giving 
of money for religious uses might, at the discretion of the 
authorities of the Church, be substituted for them ; but it was 
the orthodox doctrine that repentance on the part of the trans- 
gressor is always necessary as a prior condition. It was also 

374 



i 



LUTHEK 



375 



lielcl that the pains of Purgatory, a part of the temporal punish- 
ments of forgiven sin, might be abridged, not, to be sure, by 
the direct power of the Pope, but through the application of 
the Church, on the ground of the merits of Christ and the 
saints. Partly for the purpose of raising money for the build- 
ing of St. Peter's Church, an authorization was given by Pope 
Leo X. for the granting of indulgences in Germany to those 
who contributed alms for that purpose. One of the agents^ 







St. Peter's 



acting under the direction of the Archbishop of Magdeburg, was 
the monk Tetzel. In the popular apprehension, the system as 
it was practiced in Germiany by some of these agents, amounted 
to a sale of absolution from guilt, or to the ransom of deceased 
friends from Purgatory. Abuses of this nature were afterwards 
condemned by the Church, through the Council of Trent, in 
severe terms. 

Luther's attack was first directed against Tetzel. Li those 
days scholars were wont to challenge ail comers to debating 



3T6 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 



contests by propounding theses in theology and philosophy, 
which they were willing to defend against all who chose to 
dispute them. In 1517 Luther, moved by these abuses, posted 

his celebrated ninety- 
hve theses on the door 
of the church at Wit- 
tenberg. Thus began a 
contest which extended 
itself to a good many 
other doctrines. The 
main points in the 
creed of Luther and of 
Protestants after him 
were the doctrine of 
forgiveness, or justifi- 
cation, b}^ faith alone, 
on the ground of the 
Atonement of Christ, 
and of the doctrine of 
the exclusive authority 
of the Bible in matters of belief and conduct. The conflict 
spread, and Luther became famous as a bold and daring cham- 
pion of reform. Leo X., the son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, 
was Pope at the time, and at first, treating the Saxon dis- 
turbances as a mere " squabble of monks," he vainly attempted, 
through his legates, to bring Luther to submission. Luther had 
a youthful associate, Philip Melanchthon, the young professor 
of Greek at Wittenberg, who Avas a great scholar, and a man of 
mild and amiable spirit. In 1520 Luther was excommunicated 
by the Pope, but went so far as publicly to burn the papal bull 
at the gates of the town, in the presence of an assembly of 
students and others gathered to witness the scene. Both 
parties had now taken the extreme step : there Avas now open 
war between them. The empire was compelled to decide be- 
tween Luther and the Pope. The Emperor Maximilian, for 
political reasons, was at first glad to hear of Luther's rebellion. 




Ltttheb 



CHAKLES V 



377 



Election of Charles V. — On the death of Maximilian (1519), 
as the Elector Frederick would not take the imperial crown, 
there were two rival candidates : Francis I., the king of 
France, and Charles I., of Spain, the grandson of Maximilian. 
Francis was a gallant and showy personage,' but it was feared 
that he would be despotic ; 
and the electors made choice 
of Charles. The extent of 
Charles's hereditary domin- 
ions in Germany, and the 
greatness of his power, would 
make him, it was thought, the 
best defender of the empire 
against the Turks. Charles 
was the inheritor of Austria 
and the Low Countries, the 
crowns of Castile and Aragon, 
of Navarre, of Kaples and 
Sicily, together with the ter- 
ritories of Spain in the New 
World; and now he was at 
the head of the Holy Eoman 

Empire. The concentration of so much power in a single hand 
could not but provoke alarm in all other potentates. The great 
rival of Charles was Francis I., and the main prize in the 
contest was dominion in Italy. Charles was a sagacious 
prince, from his education strongly attached to the Koman 
Catholic system, and, in virtue of the imperial office, the pro- 
tector of the Church. Yet with him political considerations, 
during most of his life, were uppermost. He overestimated 
the power of political combinations. Charles Y. first came 
into Germany in 1521. At the Diet of AYorms, Luther ap- 
peared before the Emperor, but refused to retract his opin- 
ions, and declined to submit to the verdicts of pope or council. 
After leaving Worms, a sentence of outlawry was passed against 
him. Charles at that moment was bent on the reconquest of 




Charles V. 



378 THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 

Milan, which the French had taken, and he counted on the aid' 
of the Pope. 

Francis I. — Francis I. (1515-1547) aimed to complete the 
work begun by his predecessors, and to make the French mon- 
archy absolute. By a concordat with the Pope (1516), the 
choice of bishops and abbots was given into the king's hand, 
while the Pope was to receive the annates, or the first year's 
revenue, of all such benefices. Francis established the practice 
of selling judicial places and offices of every sort. He was 
bent on maintaining the unity of France, and, as a condition, 
the Catholic system. But he was always ready to help the 
Protestants in Germany when he could thereby weaken Charles. 
For the same end, he was even ready to join hands with the 
Turk. 

It was inevitable that Charles and Francis should quarrel, 
for Charles claimed a portion of southern France, the duchy 
of Burgundy, which he did not allow that Louis XL had the 
right to confiscate, while Francis claimed ISlaples in virtue of 
the rights of the house of Anjou, as well as Spanish Navarre, 
and the suzerainty of Flanders and Artois. Francis had 
gained a brilliant victory over the Swiss at the battle of 
Marignano, in 1515, and reconquered Milan. He concluded 
a treaty of peace with the Swiss, which gave to the king, in 
return for a yearly pension, the liberty to levy troops in Swit- 
zerland. This treaty continued until the French Revolution. 

First War of Charles and Francis (1521-1526). — Hostilities 
between Francis and Charles commenced in Italy in 1521. 
The Emperor was soon master of all northern Italy. England 
and the Pope sided with Charles ; and on the death of Leo X., 
a former tutor of the Emperor was made his successor, under 
the name of Adrian VI. (1522). The most eminent and the 
richest man in France, next to the king, Charles of Bourbon, 
constable of the kingdom, joined the enemies of Francis. He 
was a brave general. In the winter of 1524-25 Francis 
crossed the Alps at the head of a brilliant army, and recap- 
tured Milan ; but he was defeated and taken prisoner at Pavia, 



CONTESTS OF CHARLES AND FRANCIS 379 

and the French, army was almost destroyed. It was stipulated 
in the Peace of Madrid (1526) that Francis should renounce 
all claim to Milan, G-enoa, and Naples, and to the suzerainty 
of Flanders and Artois, cede the duchy of Burgundy, and 
deliver his sons as hostages. 

Luther at the Wartburg. — Luther, although under the ban of 
the Empire, was under the protection of the Elector of Saxony, 
who placed him in the castle of the Wartburg, where he could 
have a safe and quiet asylum. There he began his translation 
of the Bible. Apart from its religious influence, it marked an 
epoch in the literary history of Germany. Luther left his 
retreat in order to quiet a disturbance among his supporters at 
Wittenberg. The influential classes were much in sympathy 
with Luther's cause, and no attempt was made to do anything 
against him under the Worms decree. 

Pope Adrian YI. was earnestly desirous of practical reform ; 
but his successor, Clement YIL, like Leo X., was of the house 
of Medici. Catholic princes and bishops of South Germany 
made an alliance at Ratisbon in 1524 to do away with certain 
abuses, but to prevent the spread of the new doctrine. In the 
same year a revolt of the peasants broke out, and in the follow- 
ing year the war became general. They had many grievances, 
and Luther sympathized with them until they resorted to 
force. Then he, and with him the great middle class, took 
sides strongly against them. The revolt was put down, and 
its leaders were inhumanly punished. For a time the peas- 
ants had wonderful success. Napoleon wondered that Charles 
V. did not seize the occasion to make Germany a united em- 
pire. Then seemed to be a time when the princes could have 
been stripped of their power. 

Second War between Charles and Francis (1527-1529). — In 
the Peace of Madrid, Charles and Francis had agreed to pro- 
ceed against the Turks and against the heretics. But, after 
the release of Francis, he repudiated his concessions, which 
were made, he alleged, under coercion ; and with Clement YIL 
he formed a coalition against the Emperor. In 1527 a Ger- 



380 THE REFOEMATION IN GERMANY 

man army, largely composed of Lutherans, stormed and cap- 
tured Eome. The Pope made an alliance with Henry VIII. 
In 1529 he concluded peace with Charles, and the emperor 
promised to exterminate heresy. In the Peace of Cambray, 
Prancis renounced his claims on Italy, Planders, and Artois, 
Charles engaged for the present not to press his claims upon 
Burgundy, and set free the French princes. 

To the Peace of Nuremberg (1532). — The Diet of Spires in 
1529 reversed the policy of tacit toleration. It passed an edict 
forbidding the progress of the Reformation in the states which 
had not accepted it, and allowing in the reformed states 
full liberty of worship to the adherents of the old confession. 
The protest by the Lutheran princes and cities, against the 
decree of the Diet, gave the name of Protestants to their party. 
The successful defense of Vienna against an immense army of 
the Turks under Solima'n delivered Charles for the moment 
from anxiety in that quarter. A theological controversy raged 
between the Lutheran and the Swiss reformers, on the subject 
of the Lord's Supper. Everything was propitious for an effort 
at coercion ; and this was resolved upon at the Diet of Augs- 
burg in 1530, where the Emperor was present in person, and 
where Melanchthon presented the celebrated Lutheran Con- 
fession of Paith. The threats against the Protestant princes 
induced them to form the League of Smalcald for mutual de- 
fense. But it was found impracticable to carry out the meas- 
ures of repression against the Lutherans. The Turks under 
Soliman were threatening. ' Prance and Denmark were ready 
to help the Protestants. Accordingly the Peace of Nuremberg 
was concluded in 1532, in which religious affairs were to be 
left as they were, and both parties were to combine against the 
common enemy of Christendom. 



CHAPTER LI 

THE REFORMATION IN TEUTONIC COUNTRIES: SWITZER- 
LAND, DENMARK, SWEDEN, ENGLAND 

Protestantism spread chiefly in countries of Teutonic race 
and speech. Elsewhere, in the countries allied to the Latins 
in blood and language, the old Church retained its ascendency. 

The Swiss Reform. — Zwingli, the founder of Protestantism 
in Switzerland, was born in 1484. He became a pastor at 
Zurich. He was a scholarly man, bluff and kindly in his ways, 
and an impressive orator. Zurich, mainly through his influ- 
ence, separated from the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Con- 
stance and became Protestant in 1524. Berne and Basle soon 
followed. Zwingli aimed to establish a republican constitution 
in the several cantons, and also in the confederation as a body, 
where the five Forest Cantons which adhered to the old Church 
had an undue share of power. The Forest Cantons entered 
into a league with Ferdinand of Austria, and the cities leaned for 
support on the German states in sympathy wdth their opinions. 
War broke out. The forces of Zurich were vanquished at Cappel, 
where Zwingli himself, who was on the field in the capacity of 
a chaplain, was slain (1531). By the peace of Cappel in 1531, 
Protestantism was not coerced, but a check was put upon its 
progress. Neither party was strong enough to subdue the 
other. 

Protestantism in Scandinavia. — In the Scandinavian countries, 
monarchical power Avas built up by means of the Eeformation. 
The union of Calmar (1307) under Queen Margaret, between 
Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, had been a dynastic union. 
The several peoples were not united in feeling. The sovereign, 

381 



382 THE REFORMATION IN TEUTONIC COUNTRIES 

moreover, had his power limited by a strong feudal nobility, 
and by a rich Church impatient of control. First the Church 
was overcome by means of Protestantism, and then the nobles. 

The Reformation in Denmark. — Christian II. at first favored 
Protestantism from political motives. After he had obtained 
possession of Stockholm (1520), as a part of his plan to subdue 
the Swedes, he took the Catholic side. His character was such 
that a violent hatred was excited against Denmark. A revolu- 
tion occurred, and he was dethroned. Duke Frederic of Schles- 
wig, an ardent Lutheran, was made king. After the accession 
of Christian III., in a Diet at Copenhagen, in 1536, the Refor- 
mation was legalized and the Lutheran system was established. 

The Reformation in Sweden. — Gustavus Vasa, a young Swede 
of a noble family, was the real founder of Swedish monarchy. 
One of the acts of Christian II. which made him detestable to 
the Swedes was a massacre of Stockholm, from which Vasa 
had escaped. He gathered a force about him, and gradually 
gaining the most important places in the country, he was at 
last proclaimed king in 1523. He favored Lutheranism, but 
at first met with opposition, especially from the peasants. 
The clergy submitted, and the temporal power of the Church 
came to an end. The Lutheran doctrine made very rapid prog- 
ress, and became dominant. 

England ; Henry VIII. and Luther. — Three great principles 
had been established in the ])rogress of English constitutional 
history, — that the king can make no law without tlie consent 
of Parliament; that he can lay no tax without their consent; 
that he must govern according to the laws, and that, if he fails 
to do so, his ministers are to be held responsible. But all the 
Tudor princes had a strong love of personal power. Of these, 
none had a more obstinate and t3a'annical will than Henry 
VIII. The advantages derived from the effect of the civil 
wars, which had reduced the strength and numbers of the 
nobility, and the natural English jealousy, always shown, of 
foreign and ecclesiastical supremacy, enabled Henry to break 
off the connection of England with Rome ; while, at the same 



HENRY VIII. 



383 



time, he resisted Protestantism and persecuted its adherents. 
He had been trained in the humanistic studies, and was proud 
of his theological acquirements. He took the field, in 1522, as 
an author against Luther, in a book in defense of the Seven 
Sacraments, for which he received from the Pope the title of 
Defender of the Faith. 




Henry VIII. 



The Divorce Question. — The cause of the breach between 
Henry YIII. and the papacy was the question of the king's 
divorce from Catherine of Aragon, aunt of Charles Y. and 
widow of Henry's deceased brother. A dispensation permit- 
ting the marriage of Henry had been granted by Pope Julius 
II. How far Henry's passion for Anne Boleyn, whom he de- 
sired to wed, was at the root of his scruples respecting the 
validity of his marriage, it may not be easy to decide. The 
imperious king, impatient at the long delays at Rome, took 
the matter into his own hands. Cardinal Wolsey, having been 
one of the legates, was deprived of all his dignities ; he was 



384 THE REFOEMATIOX IX TEUTONIC COUNTRIES 

charged with treason, his strength melted away on his fall 
from the heights of power, and he died a broken-spirited 
man. 

Separation of England from Rome. — Henry took for his prin- 
cipal minister, who became vicegerent in ecclesiastical affairs, 
Thomas Cromwell. Cromwell, unlike Wolsey, was hostile to 
the temporal power of Rome. He made Thomas Cranmer 
Archbishop of Canterbury, who was at heart a Protestant in 
doctrine, but, though sincere in his beliefs, was a man of pliant 
temper, indisposed to resist the king's will, preferring to bow 
to a storm, and to wait for it to pass by. By Cranmer the 
divorce was decreed, but this was after the marriage with Anne 
Boleyn had taken place. Henry was excommunicated by the 
Pope. Acts of Parliament abolished the Pope's supremacy, 
and established that of the king, in the Church of England. 
In 1536 the cloisters were abolished. Their property was con- 
fiscated, and fell to a large extent into the hands of the nobles 
and the gentry. This measure bound them to the policy of 
the sovereign. The mitered abbots were expelled from the 
House of Lords, Avhich left the preponderance of power with 
the lay nobles. The hierarchy bowed to the will of the king. 

The Two Parties. — There were two parties in England 
among the upholders of the king's supremacy. There Avere 
the Protestants by conviction, who were for spreading the 
new doctrine. This had already taken root and spread in the 
universities, and in some other places in the country. The 
new literary cidture had paved the way for it. Cromwell, 
Cranmer, and one of the bishops, Latimer, were prominent 
leaders of this party. Against them were the adherents of 
the Catholic theology, such as Gardiner, Tunstal of Durham, 
and other bishops. At first the King inclined towards the first 
of these two parties. One of his most important acts was the 
ordering of a translation of the Bible into English, a copy of 
which was to be placed in every church. But a popular rebel- 
lion in 1536 was followed by a change of ecclesiastical policy. 
The Six Articles were passed, asserting the Roman Catholic 



SEPARATION OF ENGLAND FROM ROME 385 

doctrines, and punishing those who denied transubstantiation 
with death. The Queen, Anne Boleyn, who was an adherent of 
the Protestant side, was executed on the charge of infidelity to 
her marriage vows (1536). A few years later Cromwell was 
sent to the scaffold for the part which he took in the negotia- 
tion of a marriage of the King with a German Protestant prin- 
cess (1540). Lutheran bishops were thrown into the Tower : 
Cranmer alone was shielded by the King's personal favor, and 
by his own prudence. This system of a national Church, of 
which the King, and not the Pope, was the head, where the 
doctrine was Koman Catholic, and the great ecclesiastical ofS.- 
cers were appointed, like civil officers, by the monarch, was 
the creation of Henry YIII. His strong will was able to 
keep down the conflicting parties. Despite his sensuality 
and cruelty, he was a popular sovereign. One of his prin- 
cipal crimes was the execution of Sir Thomas More for refus- 
ing to assert the invalidity of his marriage with Catherine, 
and for declining to affirm by oath the King's supremacy. 
More was one of the noblest men in England, a man who 
combined vigor with gentleness. He was willing to swear 
that the children of Anne were lawful heirs to the throne, 
because Parliament, he believed, could regulate the succes- 
sion; but this did not satisfy the tyrannical monarch. In 
the latter portion of his reign he grew more suspicious, will- 
ful, and cruel. 



CHAPTER LII 

THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY, FROM THE PEACE OF 
NUREMBERG TO THE PEACE OF AUGSBURG (1532-1555) 

The Parties in Germany (1532-1542). — Eor ten years after the 
Peace of Nuremberg, the Protestants in Germany were left 
unmolested. Tlie menacing attitude of the Turks, and the 
occupations of the Emperor in Italy and in other lands, ren- 
dered it impossible to interfere with them. The Smalcald 
League was extended, and a league of the Catholic states was 
formed at Nuremberg in 1538. I'rotestantism was spreading 
in Austria, ]>avaria, and in other states. The need of Protes- 
tant help against the Turks compelled Charles to sanction the 
Peace of Nuremberg, and to make to the Lutluirans very im- 
portant concessions. Charles was, however, secretly resolved 
to coerce the Protestants in Germany, and he silently made 
his preparations for war. Before hostilities commenced, 
Luther died (154G). Francis I. had become a party to an 
agreement with Charles for joint action against the heretics. 
Maurice, duke of Saxony, an able and adroit man and one of 
the mainstays of the Smalcaldic League, was won over to the 
side of the Emperor. Charles then defeated John Ercdci-ic, 
Elector of Saxony, one of the chief leaders of the League, and 
Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, the other leader, soon surrendered. 
The Protestant cause was prostrate. The clever Maurice ob- 
tained his reward, for he received the electoral office with a 
goodly portion of the Elector's territory. Charles was vict(n'i- 
oiis, and seemed to be on the eve of complete trium])h. He 
undertook to regulate the affairs of religion for himself, how- 
ever, and he was deserted by his allies, Pome, Prance, and 

386 



PARTIES IN GERMANY 387 

Maurice of Saxony. There had for some time been a demand 
for a general council to adjust religious controversies, and in 
1545 the famous Council of Trent assembled, but did not help 
on the Emperor's scheme for uniting the conflicting religious 
parties. Charles's mode of dealing with the German states 
widened the breach between himself and his former allies. 
Maurice of Saxony concluded an alliance with Henry II. of 
France, and suddenly took the field, advancing upon the 
emperor, who was compelled to fly hastily from Innsbruck 
(1552). The dream of imperial domination vanished. At the 
Diet of Augsburg in 1554, the religious peace was concluded. 
Every prince was to be allowed to choose between the Catholic 
religion and the Augsburg Confession, and the religion of the 
prince was to be that of the land over which he reigned. This 
last rule was not to hold in the case of ecclesiastical princes who 
should become Protestants. 



CHAPTER LIII 

CALVINISM IN GENEVA; BEGINNING OF THE CATHOLIC 
COUNTER-REFORMATION 

Calvin. — Second in reputation to Liitlier only, among the 
founders of Protestantism, is Jolin Calvin. He was a French- 
.man, born in 1509, and was consequently a cMld when the Saxon 
Eeformation began. He was keen and logical in his mental 
habit, with a great organizing capacity, naturally of a retiring 
temper, yet fearless, and endued with extraordinary intensity 
and firmness of will. Espousing the Protestant doctrines, he 
was obliged to fly from Paris, and, when only twenty-seven 
years old, published his celebrated Institutes of Theology, in 
which he expounded the Protestant creed in a systematic 
way. 

The Genevan Government. — Calvin established himself at 
Geneva, where, as the result of a revolution, the power passed 
from the bishop into the hands of the people. Calvin and 
his associates imposed regulations as to doctrine, worship, and 
discipline, which the inhabitants of the gay and dissolute city 
found distasteful. The preachers were accordingly expelled, 
but after three years, in consequence of the increase of vice 
and disorder, Calvin was recalled and remained in Geneva 
until his death. He became the virtual lawgiver of the city, 
and developed it into an ecclesiastical state in which orthodoxy 
of belief and purity of conduct were enforced by stringent 
enactments. His influence spread far and wide, and was pre- 
dominant in the affairs of the French Protestants. In Geneva 
as elsewhere, the idea prevailed that it was the duty of the 
civil authority to inflict penalties upon heresy. 

389 



390 THE CATHOLIC COUNTER-REFORMATION" 

The Catholic Reaction. — The first effectual resistance to the 
spread of Protestant opinions was made in Italy. The pre- 
vailing feeling there was that of pride in the papacy, which, 
in other countries, was attacked as an Italian institution. The 
humanist learning had done much to undermine belief in the 
old religious system. In the train of the new studies, came 
much ^indifference and infidelity. There were not a few con- 
verts to the Protestant doctrine in the cities. It took no root 
among the common people. A new spirit of faith and devo- 
tion awoke in circles earnestly devoted to the papacy and to 
the Church. There was at Rome an Oratory of Divine 
Love, — a group of persons wlio met together for mutual 
edification. Out of this class there came some who led in 
the great Catholic Reaction, which, while it aimed at a rigid 
reform in morals, was inflexibly hostile to all innovations in 
doctrine, and was bent on regaining for the Church the ground 
that had been lost. 

The Council of Trent; the Jesuits.— The Council of Trent, 
which met in 1545, and finally adjourned in 15G3, adopted 
many practical reforms. It cemented unity and was the 
first great bulwark raised against Protestantism. Another 
means of defense and attack was provided in new orders, 
especially the Society of Jesus, founded by Ignatius Loyola, 
a Spanish soldier of noble birth, who mingled a strong devo- 
tional sentiment with the spirit of chivahy. The Jesuits took 
monastic vows, went through a preliminary religious training, 
and were bound to unquestioning obedience to the Pope. All 
other ties were renounced ; to serve the Church and the Society 
was the one supreme obligation. Active in preaching and in 
hearing confessions, the Jesuits made the education of youth 
a great part of the business. They found their way into high 
stations and they showed an ardent and heroic zeal in mis- 
sionary labors in heathen lands, and in the reconquest of lands 
won by Protestantism. 



CHAPTER LIV 

PHILIP II., AND THE REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS 

State of the Low Countrieso — The people of the Netherlands 
were industrious, intelligent, prosperous, spirited. Each of the 
seventeen provinces had its own constitution. The population 
numbered three millions. Antwerp had more trade than any 
other European city. This was the country which Philip II., 
to whom his father Charles Y. resigned his crowns, undertook 
to bring under a despotic system. The monarch who thus suc- 
ceeded to his father's dominions in Spain, Italy, America, and 
the IS'etherlands, was more thoroughly a Spaniard in his tone 
and temper than was Charles. He was cold and forbidding in 
his manners. Political and religious absolutism was the main 
article in his creed. A man of untiring industry, he was a 
plodder without insight. He lived to see the vast strength 
which fell to him as a legacy slip out of his hands, and 
before he died he beheld Spain in a position of comparative 
weakness. 

Tyranny of Philip. — Eor the regency of the Netherlands Philip 
might have selected one of the aristocracy of the country — 
the brilliant Count Egmont, for example, or the sagacious Wil- 
liam, Prince of Orange. Philip appointed them members of a 
council together with Count Horn, but gave the regency to 
Margaret of Parma, the illegitimate daughter of Charles Y., at 
whose side, as a principal adviser, he placed the astute Gran- 
velle, the bishop of Arras. Philip persisted in keeping Spanish 
soldiers in the country ; he increased the number of bishops ; 
he introduced the Inquisition. The nobles shared in the indig- 
nation of the country and withdrew from the council. Orange 

391 



392 



KEVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS 



retired to Nassau. Egmont, more credulous and confiding, re- 
mained in the Ketherlands, over which the Duke of Alva was 
now made ruler. He was an officer of considerable military 
capacity, but he was arrogant and merciless. Egmont and 
Horn were executed at Brussels, and great numbers of men and 
women were put to death on charges of insubordination or some 
manifestation of heresy. William of Orange came to the rescue 
of the fatherland. A long and arduous struggle began, which 
resulted in the Dutch Republic of the United Provinces, and 
the ultimate prostration of the power of Spain. The inhabi- 
tants of Leyden, besieged by the Spanish forces, cut the dikes 
and brought in the sea to their rescue, which compelled the 
Spaniards to flee in dismay. Eequesens, the successor of Alva, 
was for a while successful, but after his death, in lpT6, all the 
Netherlands united in the Pacification of Ghent in the Spanish 
dominion. In 1579 the seven provinces of the North Nether- 
lands formed the Utrecht Union. At the time of the forma- 
tion of the Utrecht Union, Alexander of Parma was regent. 
Philip proclaimed William an outlaw, and set a j)rice on his 
head. After six vain attempts to assassinate him, the heroic 
leader was finally shot in his own house (1584). His work as 
a deliverer of his people had, however, been mainly accom- 
plished. 




Galley of the Sixteenth Century 



CHAPTER LV 

THE CIVIL WARS IN FRANCE, TO THE DEATH OF HENRY 

IV, (1610) 

Francis I. ; Henry II. — Francis I. was a friend of tlie new 
learning, but in religious matters it was impossible to predict 
what position he would assume. He was governed by political 
considerations. He would put down Protestantism at home, 
and sustain it by force, if expedient, abroad. His son, Henry 
IL, who succeeded him in 1547, had no sympathy whatever 
with the new doctrine. Yet, in spite of persecution, the 
Huguenots (as the Calvinists were called) had, in 1558, two 
thousand places of worship in Prance. In 1559 Henry died 
from a wound in the eye, accidentally inflicted in a tilt. 

Catharine de' Medici; the Two Parties The widow of Henry 

IL, Catharine de' Medici, was a woman of talents Avho had 
been trained from infancy in an atmosphere of deceit and im- 
morality. She expected to manage the government of her son, 
Prancis IL, a boy of sixteen, but the family of Guise thwarted 
her by the control they exercised over him. The sister of 
Prancis, Duke of Guise, had married James V. of Scotland. 
Their daughter, Mary Stuart, a charming young girl, was mar- 
ried to Prancis IL, who, being infirm in mind and body, was 
easily managed by his v/ife and her uncles. The great nobles 
of Prance, especially the Bourbons, sprung in a collateral line 
from Louis IX., and the Montmorencies, who numbered among 
them a man of extraordinary ability and worth, the Admiral 
Coligni, looked on the Guises as upstarts. The Bourbons and 
the nobles allied to them were, some from sincere conviction 
and some from policy, adherents of Calvinism. Thus the 

393 



394 CIVIL WARS IN FRANCE 

Protestants in France became a political party, as well as a 
religious body, and a party \Yith anti-monarchical tendencies. 
Anthon}^ of Bourbon, a weak and vacillating person, had 
married Jeanne d'Albret, the heiress of Beam and Navarre, a 
heroic Avoman and a sincere Protestant, the mother of Henry 
lA". His brother Louis, Prince of Conde, a brave impetuous 
soldier, whose wife was a strict Protestant, joined that side. 

Conspiracy of Amboise. — A Protestant nobleman who was de- 
termined to avenge the execution of a brother, contrived the 
Conspiracy of Amboise (1560) in order to dispossess the Guises 
of their power by force. The plan was discovered, and a sav- 
age revenge was taken upon the conspirators. A great num- 
ber of innocent persons, who had no share in the plot, were 
put to death. The Estates were summoned to Orleans, and 
the occasion was to. be seized for extirpating heresy through- 
out the kingdom. Conde was under arrest, and charged with 
high treason. Just then, on December 5, 1560, the young king 
died. 

Charles IX. ; Civil War. — As Charles IX., who succeeded to 
the throne (1560-1571), was only ten years old, his mother, 
Catharine de' Medici, virtually became regent. In 1562 the 
Edict of St. Germain was issued which gave a restricted tolera- 
tion to the Protestants. It was found impossible, however, 
to prevent disturbances and acts of violence, and a series of 
terrible civil wars began Avhich lasted until the accession of 
Henry IV. to the throne. Xow the Catholics gained successes, 
and now the Protestants. The latter were strong under the 
wise leadership of Coligni. La Rochelle became their strong- 
hold, and thence the Huguenot cavalry sallied forth under the 
young princes Conde and Henry of Navarre, son of the Queen 
of Navarre. 

In the meantime, not only France, but England as well, 
looked with alarm upon the ambitious project of Philip II. of 
Spain, who had defeated the Turks at Lepanto, and was now 
in union with Venice and with the Pope. Catharine de' jMedici 
devised various plans to thwart Philip's policy, and sought to 



MASSACEE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW 395 

bring about a marriage between Queen Elizabeth of England 
and the Duke of Anjou, brother of Charles IX. This plan, 
however, failed, but it was agreed that Catherine's youngest 
daughter, Margaret of Valois, would become the wife of Henry 
of Navarre. The Huguenot policy was thus in the ascendant, 
and the Huguenot leaders were invited to Paris to be present 
at the nuptials. They came attended by a large number of 
their followers. The hatred of the Parisian populace toward 
them was exceptionally violent. The Duke of Guise and his 
mother were eager to avenge the assassination of the Duke's 
father, for Avhich they wrongly held Coligni responsible. 

The Massacre of St. Bartholomew. — Catherine was alarmed at 
the ascendency that Coligni was gaining over the mind of the 
King, by which her own influence was threatened. An attempt 
was njade by the Guises to assassinate him. When this failed 
of complete success, she, with a few confederates, planned 
the massacre of St. Bartholomew, one of the most celebrated 
crimes of history. In the night of the 24th of August, at a 
concerted signal, the fanatical enemies of the Iluguenots were 
let loose, and murdered several thousands, including Coligni. 
Navarre and Conde, to save their lives, professed conformity 
to the Catholic religion. Orders were sent through the coun- 
try to destroy the heretics, and not far from twenty thousand 
were slain. Not only Protestants, but also numerous Catholics, 
in other lands, regarded these scenes of slaughter with horror. 
By some the report was credited that they were prompted by 
the purpose to crush a conspiracy of the Huguenots. 

The Politiques ; the League; Henry III. — The Politiques now 
arose. It was a new party of Liberal Catholics in favor of 
toleration. Between the demands of this party and the Hugue- 
nots for religious freedom and the threats of the Catholic 
League, which was arrayed against them, the irresolute and 
helpless Henry III. (1574-1589) proved incompetent to govern 
a country which was torn by factions, with an exhausted treas- 
ury and a people groaning under the burdens of taxation. 
Henry of Navarre was the heir a^Dparent, and he secured the 



396 CIVIL WAKS IN FRANCE 

cooperation of England, Germany, and Switzerland in the war 
which he carried on with Henry III. That miserable mon- 
arch, himself excommunicated, and detested by the adherents 
of the League, took refuge in the camp of Henry of a^avarre, 
where he was killed by a fanatical priest (1589). 

Henry IV. — In the next year Henry gained a brilliant vic- 
tor}^ at Ivry, and nothing stood between him and the throne 
but his adhesion to Protestantism. A Calvinist by birth and 
education, but without profound religious convictions, a gallant 
and sagacious man, but loose in his morals, he yielded, for the 
sake of giving peace to France, to the persuasions addressed 
to him, and, from motives of expediency, conformed to the 
Catholic Church. The nation was now easily won to his cause. 

Reign of Henry IV When Henry IV. gained his throne, 

the country was in a most wretched condition. In the desolat- 
ing wars, pox)ulation had fallen* off. Everywhere there were 
poverty and lawlessness. Yet war with Spain was inevitable. 
In this war Henry was the victor ; and the Peace of Vervins 
(1598) restored to France the Spanish conquests, aud the con- 
quests made by Savoy. The idea of Henry's foreign policy, 
which was that of weakening the power of Spain and of the 
house of Hapsburg, was afterwards taken up by a powerful 
statesman, Richelieu, and fully realized. In the Edict of 
Nantes (1598), the King secured to the Huguenots the meas- 
ure of religious liberty for which they had contended. Forti- 
fied cities were still left in their hands. Security was obtained 
by the Calvinists, but they became a defensive party with no 
prospect of further progress. Order and prosperity were re- 
stored to the kingdom. In all his measures, the King was 
largely guided by a most competent minister, Sully. But the 
useful reign of Henry IV. was cut short by the dagger of an 
assassin (1610). For fifteen years confusion prevailed in 
France, and a contest of factions, until Richelieu took up the 
threads of policy which had fallen from Henry's hand. 



CHAPTER LVI 

THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR, TO THE PEACE OF WEST- 
PHALIA (1618-1648) 

Origin of the War. — In Germany, more than in any other 
country, the Reformation had its roots in the hearts of the 
people. There were, however, divisions among the Protestants 
themselves. The Peace of Augsburg prevented open strife as 
long as Perdinand I. (1555-1564) and Maximilian II. (1564- 
1576) held the imperial office. With the accession of Rudolph 
II., a change took place. There were outbreakings of violence 
between the two religious parties. Most of the Protestant 
states united in forming the Evangelical Union, while the 
Catholic League, under the leadership of Maximilian of Bava- 
ria, was firmly knit together and full of energy. 

First Stage in the War (to 1629) 

The Bohemian Struggle. — Against Ferdinand 11. the Bohe- 
mians revolted in 1618. AVith the support of the Catholic 
League he invaded the country and reenacted the terrible 
scenes of the Hussite struggle. In the wars that followed it 
was estimated that the Bohemian population was reduced from 
about four millions to between seven and eight hundred thou- 
sand. Ferdinand's general, W^allenstein, was a military com- 
mander of extraordinary ability. He raised an army and 
made it support itself by pillage. Victory attended his arms 
and those of Tilly, a brutal commander, the general of the 
League. In 1629 the League moved Ferdinand to adopt the 
Edict of K-estitution, which enforced those parts of the Peace 

397 



398 THIRTY YEARS' WAR 

of Augsburg which were odious to the Protestants. The 
League, moreover, induced the Emperor to remove Wallen- 
stein, of whom they were jealous. 

Second Stage in the War (1629-1632) 

Events in Sweden; Career of Gustavus Adolphus. — In 1611 

Gustavus Adolplius, then less than eighteen years of age, be- 
came King of Sweden. He was a well-educated prince, early 
familiar with war, a devoted patriot, and, although tolerant in 
his temper, was a sincere Protestant, after the type of the old 
Saxon electors. For eighteen years after his accession, it had 
been his aim to control the Baltic. This had brought him 
into conflict with Denmark, Poland, and Russia. His inter- 
position in the German war, a step which was full of peril 
to himself, was regarded by Brandenburg and Saxony with 
jealousy and repugnance. But when the savage troops of 
Tilly (1631) sacked and burned Madgeburg, the neutral party 
was driven to side with Sweden. Gustavus defeated Tilly, 
and the advance of his army in the south of Germany pros- 
trated the power of the League. The princes regarded the 
Swedish king with suspicion; the cities regarded him with 
cordiality. Whether along with his sagacious and just inten- 
tions he connected his own elevation to the rank of King of 
Rome, and emperor, must be left uncertain. Ferdinand was 
obliged to call back Wallenstein. The battle of Llitzen, in 
1632, was a great defeat of Wallenstein, and a grand victory 
for the Swedes ; but it cost them the life of their king. 

Third Stage in the War (1632-1648) 

France after Henry IV. — After the death of Gustavus, the 
influence of Richelieu, the great minister of France, becomes 
more and more dominant. When Henry IV. died, Mary of 
Medici, his widow, became regent during the minority of 
Louis XIII. (1610-1643). She leagued herself in various 



THE BOUKBON KINGS 



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THIRTY YEARS' WAR 



ways with Spain. Some time after Louis came of age, 
Eiclielien, Bishop of Liicon (made cardinal in 1622), began 
his active career in politics. Louis XIIL was not personally 

>. fond of him, but he 
felt the need of him, 
and after 1624 this 
great statesman 
guided the policy of 
France. He brought 
the aristocracy into 
subjection to the 
King. He accom- 
plished the over- 
throw of the Hugue- 
nots as a political 
organization. The 
common people were 
kept under, while the 
key of his foreign 
policy was hostility 
to Austria and Spain, 
to both branches of 
the house of Hapsburg. He took part in the German war 
and helped Gustavus with money. In 1634 Wallenstein was 
murdered in his camp at the instance of the German Emperor, 
who was alarmed at Wallenstein's plan of making himself 
an independent prince. The Emperor gained a victory at 
Nordlingen (1634), but it was not until five years afterwards 
that Eichelieu found himself in control of the armies opposed 
to the emperor. The old theological issues were largely for- 
gotten, for the Protestant states were now fighting on the 
imperial side. The barbarities of the long war are indescrib- 
able. Cities, villages, and castles had been burned to the 
ground. The unarmed people were treated with brutal fe- 
rocity. In the thirty years of the conflict the population of 
Germany is said to have diminished from twenty to fifty per 




KlCHKLIEU 



THIRTY YEARS' AVAR 401 

cent. At last the militcaiy reverses of Ferdinand III. (1637- 
1657) wrung from him a consent to the conditions which made 
the Peace of Westphalia possible (1648). By the peace it was 
agreed that in Germany, whatever might be the faith of the 
prince, the religion of each state was to be Cathie or Protes- 
tant according to its position in 1624, which was fixed npon 
as the '^ normal year." In the imperial administration, the 
two religions were to be substantially equal. Peligious free- 
dom and civil equality were extended to the Calvinists. The 
emxjire was reduced to a shadow by giving to the Diet the 
power to decide in all important matters, and by the permis- 
sion given to its members to make alliances with one another 
and with foreign powers, with the futile proviso that no preju- 
dice should come thereby to the empire or the Emperor. The 
independence of Holland and Switzerland was acknowledged. 
Sweden obtained the territory about the Baltic, in addition to 
other important places, and became a member of the German 
Diet. Among the acquisitions of Prance were the three bish- 
oprics, Metz, Toul, and Verdun, and the landgraviate of Upper 
and Lower Alsace. Thus Prance gained access to the Rhine. 
Sweden and Prance, by becoming guarantors of the peace, 
obtained the right to interfere in the internal affairs of 
Germany. 

Consequences of the Treaty. — By this treaty, what was left 
of central authority in Germany was destroyed: the empire 
existed only in name ; the mediaeval union of empire and 
papacy was at an end. Valuable German territories were 
given up to ambitious neighbors. Prance had extended her 
bounds, and disciplined her troops. Sweden had gained what 
Gustavus had coveted, and, for the time, was a power of the 
first class. Spain and Austria were both disabled and reduced 
in rank. 



CHAPTER LVII 

SECOND STAGE OF THE EEFOKMATION IN ENGLAND, TO 
THE DEATH OF ELIZABETH (1647-1603) 

Reign of Edward VI. (i 547-1 553). — Henry YIII., with 
Parliament, had determined the order of succession, giving 
precedence to Edward, his son by Jane Seymour, over the two 
princesses, Mary, the daughter of Catherine, and Elizabeth, the 
daughter of Anne Boleyn. Edward YL, who was but ten years 
old at his accession, was weak in body, but was a most remark- 
able instance of intellectual x^recocity. The government now 
espoused the Protestant side. Somerset, the King's uncle, was 
at the head of the regency. The Six Articles, established by 
Henry YIIL, were repealed. Protestant theologians from the 
Continent were taken into the counsels of the English prelates, 
Cranmer and Ridley. Under the leadership of Cranmer, the 
Book of Common Prayer was framed, and the Articles, or creed, 
composed. The clergy were allowed to marry. The Anglican 
Protestant Church was fully organized, but the progress in the 
Protestant direction was rather too rapid for the sense of the 
nation. Somerset, who was fertile in schemes and a good sol- 
dier, invaded Scotland in order to enforce the fulfilling of the 
treaty, which had promised the young Princess Mary of Scot- 
land to Edward in marriage. He defeated the Scots at Pinkie, 
near Edinburgh; but the project as to the marriage failed. 
Mary was sent by the Scots to Erance, there to become the 
wife of Erancis 11. Land belonging to the Church was seized 
by Somerset to make room for Somerset House. The opposi- 
tion to him on various grounds, which was led by the Duke of 
Northumberland, finally brought the protector to the scaffold. 

403 



404 THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND 

But Northumberland proved to be less worthy to hold the pro- 
tectorate than he, and labored to aggrandize his relatives. He 
was one of the nobles who made use of Protestantism as a 
means of enriching themselves. He persuaded t^ young King, 
when he was near his end, to settle the crown, contrary to what 
Parliament had determined, on Lady Jane Grey, Northumber- 
land's daughter-in-law, a descendant of Henry's sister. 

The Reign of Mary. — Notwithstanding the protector's selfish 
scheme, Mary succeeded to the throne without serious difficulty. 
Northumberland was beheaded as a traitor. An insurrection 
under Wyat was put down, and led to the execution of the un- 
fortunate and innocent Lady Jane Grey. From her birth and 
all the circumstances of her life, Mary was in cordial sympathy 
with the Church of Eome and with Spain. She proceeded as 
rapidly as her more prudent advisers, including her kinsman 
Philip II., would allow, to restore the Catholic system. The 
married clergy were excluded from their places, and the Prayer 
Book was abolished. The point where Parliament showed most 
hesitation was in reference to the royal supremacy. The nobles 
were afraid of losing their fields and houses, which had be- 
longed to the Church. It was stipulated that the abbey lands, 
which were now held by the nobles and gentry as well as by 
the crown, should not be given up. Contrary to the general 
wish of her subjects, Mary married Philip II. Eigorous 
measures of repression were adopted against the Protestants. 
A large number of persons, eminent for talents and learning, 
Avere put to death on the charge of heresy. Among them were 
the three bishops, Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer, who were 
burned at the stake at Oxford (1556). These severe measures 
were not popular; and, although the Queen was not in her 
natural temper cruel, they have given her the name of the 
Bloody Mary. Each party used coercion when it had the 
upper hand. A great number of the Protestant clergy fled to 
the Continent. Mary sided with Spain against France, and, 
greatly to the disgust of the English, lost Calais (1558). 
There was great fear respecting the Church property con- 



ELIZABETH 



405 



fiscated under Henry VIII. : her own share in it, the Queen 
persuaded Parliament to allow her to surrender. Cardinal 
Pole, a moderate man, no longer guided her policy. He was 
deprived of the office of papal legate. General discontent 
prevailed in the kingdom. The Queen herself was dispirited, 
and her life ended in anxiety and sorrow. 




Elizabeth 



Character of Elizabeth (1558-1603). — The nation welcomed 
Elizabeth to the throne. Her will was as imperious as that 
of her father. Her character was not without marked faults 
and foibles. She was vain, unwisely parsimonious, petulant, 
and overbearing, and evinced that want of truthfulness which 
was too common among rulers and statesmen at that period. 
But she had regal virtues, — high courage, devotion to the 
public good, for which she had the strength to sacrifice per- 



406 THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND 

sonal inclinations, together with the wisdom to choose astute 
counselors and to adhere to them. Her title to the throne 
was disputed. She had to contend against powerful and 
shrewd adversaries. Her defense lay in the mutual jealousy 
of France and Spain, and in the determination of English- 
men not to be ruled by foreigners. Her reign was long and 
glorious. 

Her Religious Position. — In her doctrine, Elizabeth was a 
moderate Lutheran, not bitterly averse to the Church of Kome, 
but, in accordance Avith the prevalent English feeling wdiich 
Henry VIII. represented, clinging to the royal supremacy. 
The Protestant system, with the Prayer Book, and the hier- 
archy dependent on the sovereign, was now restored. 

Protestantism in Scotland In case Elizabeth's claim to the 

crown were overthrown, the next heir would be Mary, Queen 
of Scots. Her grandmother was the eldest sister of Henry 
VIII. Her claim to the English crown was a standing men- 
ace to Elizabeth. When Mary's father, James V., died (1542), 
she was only a few days old. Her mother, Mary of Guise, 
became regent. The Peformation had then begun to gain ad- 
herents in Scotland. On the accession of Elizabeth, at a time 
when the religious wars in France were about to begin, the 
Scottish regent undertook repressive measures of increased 
rigor. The principal agent in turning Scotland to the Prot- 
estant side was John Knox, a bold preacher, honest and rough 
in his ways, deeply imbued with the sj)irit of Calvinism, and 
free from every vestige of superstitious deference for human 
potentates. He returned from the Continent in 1555, and 
many of the turbulent nobles, partly from conviction, aiid 
partly from covetousness, adopted the new opinions. More 
and more, however, Knox gained a hold upon /the common 
people. His jjreaching was effective. One of its natural conse- 
quences was an outburst of iconoclasm, and pictures, images, 
and windows of stained glass were destroyed by mobs. Even 
Philip II. was willing to have the nobles helped in the con- 
test with the regent, Scotland being the ally of France. The 



MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS 407 

queen regent died in 1560. Tlie Presbyterians now had full 
control, and Calvinistic Protestantism was legally established 
as the religion of the country. 

The Queen of Scots — Such was the situation when Mary, 
the young widow of Francis II., came back to Scotland to 
assume her crown. A zealous Catholic, she undertook to 
rule a turbulent people among whom the most austere type 
of Protestantism was the legal and cherished faith. She 
had personal charms which Elizabeth lacked, but as a sover- 
eign she was wanting in the public virtue which belonged to 
her rival. Mary was quick-witted and full of energy; but 
she had been brought up in the court of Catharine de' Medici, 
in an atmosphere of duplicity and lax morals. She had the 
vices of the Stuarts, — an extravagant idea of the sacred pre- 
rogatives of kings, a disregard of popular rights, a willingness 
to break engagements. Her levity, even if it had been kept 
within bounds, would have been offensive to her Calvinistic 
subjects. She had at heart the restoration of the Catholic sys- 
tem. In Knox she found a vigilant and fearless antagonist, 
with so much support among the nobles and the common 
people that her attempts at coercion, like her blandishments, 
proved powerless. Contrary to the wishes and plans of Eliza- 
beth, she married Darnley, a Scottish nobleman (1565), whom, 
not without reason, she soon learned to despise. Her half- 
brother Murray, a very able man, and the other Protestant 
nobles had been opposed to the match. She allowed herself 
an innocent, but unseemly, intimacy with an Italian musician, 
Rizzio. With the connivance of her husband, he was dragged 
out of her supper room at Holyrood, and brutally murdered by 
Euthven and other conspirators. In 1567 the house in which 
Darnley was sleeping, close by Edinburgh, was blown up with 
gunpowder, and he was killed. Whether Mary was privy to 
the murder, or not, is a point still in dispute. Certain it is 
that she gave her hand in marriag'e to Bothwell, the prime 
author of the crime. A revolt of her subjects followed. She 
was compelled to abdicate ; Murray was made regent, and her 



408 THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND 

infant son, James VI., was crowned at Stirling (1567). Escap- 
ing from confinement at Lochleven, she was defeated at Lang- 
side, and obliged to fly to England for protection. It soon 
became evident that there was a determination on the part 
of the enemies of Elizabeth to dethrone her and to hand the 
crown over to Mary. When Mary's complicity in a conspiracy 
which involved a Spanish invasion was proved, she was con- 
demned to death and executed at Eotheringay Castle, after a 
captivity of nineteen years. 

The Spanish Armada The Queen had her personal favor- 
ites. Among them was Eobert Dudley, whom she made Earl 
of Leicester. Another of her favorites was the young Earl of 
Essex. Under the former she sent troops to the Netherlands 
in 1585, while on the sea the contest with Spain was kept up 
by bold English mariners. It was a period of maritime ad- 
venture, when men like Erobisher, Hawkins, and Ealeigh 
made themselves famous, and Sir Francis Drake sailed round 
the world. When it became known that Philip II. of Spain 
was preparing to invade England, Drake sailed into the harbor 
of Cadiz and destroyed the ships and stores there, and boasted 
on his return that he had '• singed the king of Spain's beard." 
Philip made ready a mighty naval expedition, the Invincible 
Armada, with which he expected to conquer England. A 
Spanish force in the Netherlands under Parma was to cooper- 
ate with him. Elizabeth assembled her troops at Tilbury, and 
made a spirited speech. The English fleet attacked the Span- 
ish vessels, and the valor of the English seamen and the skill 
of their commanders won a great victory. A tempest added to 
the discomfiture of the defeated fleet, and the great enterprise 
proved a complete failure. Only fifty-four out of the one hun- 
dred and fifty vessels succeeded in making their way back to 
Spain. 

Subsequent Events. —Essex failed in an expedition against 
Ireland on which he had been sent by the Queen, and upon 
his return he made a foolish attempt at insurrection, was tried 
for treason, convicted, and executed, — Elizabeth reluctantly 



THE PURITANS 



409 



signing his death warrant (1601). By the end of Elizabeth's 
reign, however, all Ireland became subject to England. 

At home, not the least among the difficulties with which 
the Queen had to contend was the conflict Avhich the English 
Church carried on with the Eoman Catholics, on the one hand, 
and, on the other, with the large and growing class of Protes- 
tants who were called Puritans. The Puritans disliked sur- 
plices and other vestments worn by the clergy and the sign 
of the cross used in baptism, and similar customs retained 
in the Church as established by law. Many of them would 
not conform to the existing system of Church government 
and worship, and were called Nonconformists. One class of 
Puritans was composed of Independents, separated from the 
Established Church, disbelieving in national churches alto- 
gether. Upon both Eoman Catholics and Puritans severe 
penalties were inflicted. 




Tkaituk'6 Gate, Towek of London 



CHAPTER LVIII. 

THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION AND THE COMMONWEALTH 

(1603-1658) 

James I. — James YI. of Scotland and I. of England was 
the son of Mary Stuart and Darnley. England and Scotland 
were now united under one king. In Scotland, he had been 
treated with familiarity by many of the nobles and by 
the ministers of the Kirk. In England, however, the clergy 
treated him with deference ; and as he was a conceited man, 
pluming himself upon his knowledge of theology, his attach- 
ment to the English Church was deepened. He had high 
notions of the divine right of kings. "No bishop, no king'' 
was his favorite maxim. He showed his antipathy to the 
Puritans. The King also showed severity to the Eoman Cath- 
olics. The Gunpowder Plot was formed for blowing up the 
Parliament House, one Guy Fawkes having been selected to 
apply the match (1605). The plot was unsuccessful. 

The King became more and more unpopular. He sold 
patents of nobility and continued the old abuse of granting 
monopolies to companies or to individuals. Lord Bacon, the 
Lord Chancellor, was tried and convicted for receiving pres- 
ents intended to influence his decisions as a judge. This is 
one of many evidences that might be adduced of the corrup- 
tion of the times. James was in conflict with Parliament, 
the majority of the House of Commons being made up of 
libert3^-loving Puritans who were inflexibly opposed to his 
arbitrary Avays. 

James's Foreign Policy. — In Ireland, the best of the lands of 
two Irish noblemen in Ulster, who had incurred the displeasure 

410 



CHARLES I. 411 

of the English authorities, were given to English and Scotch 
colonists. By this injustice seeds of lasting enmity were sown 
among the native population. Instead of aiding his son-in-law, 
Frederick V., the Elector Palatine, whose dominions had been 
seized by a Spanish army, James busied himself with schemes 
for marrying his son Charles to the infanta, or princess, Maria 
of Spain. He fawned upon the Spanish government, and, as 
a part of his truckling, he caused Sir Walter Kaleigh to be 
executed. Raleigh's men had engaged in a conflict with 
Spaniards in South America, whither the King had sent him 
in search for gold. At length the marriage treaty with Spain 
was broken off, and Charles was affianced to Henrietta Maria, 
the sister of Louis XIII. of Erance. In the latter part of his 
life, James came to a better understanding with Parliament. 
He died in 1625. 

Charles I. (1625-1649). — Charles I. in dignity of person far 
excelled his father. He had more skill and more courage ; but 
he had the same theory of arbitrary government, and acted as 
if insincerity and the breaking of promises were excusable in 
defense of it. His strife with Parliament began at once. They 
would not grant supplies of money withou-t a redress of griev- 
ances and the removal of Buckingham, the King's favorite. 
War had begun with Spain before the close of the last reign. 
An expedition was now sent to Cadiz, but it accomplished 
nothing. Buckingham w^as impeached; but before the trial 
ended, the King dissolved Parliament. A year later he went 
to war with Erance. He was then obliged (1628) to grant to 
his third Parliament their Petition of Bight, which condemned 
his recent illegal doings, — arbitrary taxes and imprisonment, 
the billeting of soldiers on householders, proceedings of martial 
law. A few months later Buckingham was assassinated by one 
John Eelton at Portsmouth, Certain taxes called tonnage and 
poundage Charles continued to levy by his own authority. 

A patriotic leader and a prominent speaker in the House of 
Commons was Sir John Eliot. The King dissolved Parliament 
(1629), and sent Eliot and two other members of the House to 



412 THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION 

prison. ]N"o other Parliament was summoned for eleven years. 
The King aimed to establish an absolute system of rule such as 
Richelieu had built up in France. Two ministers were em- 
ployed by him in furthering this policy. One was a layman, 
AYentworth, Earl of Strafford, who exercised almost unlimited 
power in the northern counties. The other was William Laud, 
Bishop of London and then Archbishop of Canterbury (1633), 
who undertook to force the Puritans to conform strictly to all 
the observances of the Church. Two courts — the High Com- 
mission, before which the clergy were brought ; and the Star 
Chamber, which was made up from the king's council — were 
the instruments for carrying out this tyranny. Grievous and 
shameful punishments were inflicted on the victims of it. 
Laud was sincere in his conviction that the course that he was 
pursuing was for the good of the nation, and his conduct was due 
as much to his conception of the political situation as to his 
zeal in behalf of the opinions which he advocated. Opposition 
to the King, hoAvever, was constantly increasing. In order to 
build a fleet, the crown levied a tax called " ship-money," which 
John Hampden, a country gentleman, refused to pay. The 
judges decided against him, but he won much applause from 
Englishmen who sympathized with his position. 

Beginning of the Long Parliament. — In 1637 Charles, prompted 
by his zeal to promote the cause of the English Church, under- 
took to force the English liturgy upon Scotland against the 
protest of the Solemn League and Covenant of the Scots, es- 
tablished for the defense of Presbyterianism. 

For eleven years the King had governed without a Parlia- 
ment, but he needed money. The Short Parliament was 
assembled ; but as it refused to obey the King, it was quickly 
dissolved. The invasion of the Scots in 1640 made it necessary 
for Charles to assemble the body known as the Long Parlia- 
ment, one of the most memorable of all legislative assemblies. 
When it came together it adopted measures hostile to the King. 
Strafford and Laud were impeached for treason, and were 
condemned and executed, the former in 1641, and the latter in 



CIVIL WAR 413 

1645. The Parliament enacted that it should not be dissolved 
or prorogued without its own consent. The Star Chamber and 
High Commission Courts were abolished. An insurrection 
having broken out in Ulster as the result of the confiscation 
by the crown of the lands of the people, Charles sought to 
raise an army to suppress the revolt, but the Parliament refused 
to sanction the plan, fearing that the troops would be used to 
defend his arbitrary government at home. The King came to 
the House of Commons with a body of armed men, and made 
an unsuccessful attempt to seize five members (among them 
John Hampden and John Pym) who had undertaken to resist 
his authority. The Parliament passed a bill excluding bishops 
from the House of Lords. To this Charles consented, but he 
refused to allow Parliament to control the militia. 

The Civil War; Cromwell. — In July, 1642, Parliament ap- 
pointed a Committee of Public Safety, and called out the 
militia. Charles raised the royal standard at Nottingham. 
In the civil war that followed, the Eoyalists or Cavaliers (that 
is, horsemen or gentlemen) were opposed to the supporters of 
the Parliament, who, because they did not follow the fashion 
of allowing their hair to fall in tresses on their shoulders, 
were nicknamed Roundheads. An indecisive battle was 
fought at Edgehill. The cavalry of Charles, under the gallant 
but rash Prince Eupert, was specially effective. Early in the 
war two noble men, Hampden and Lord Falkland, were killed 
— the former on the popular side and the other on the side of 
the king. Charles made peace with the Irish insurgents and 
obtained their aid against Parliament. Parliament, on the 
other hand, made an alliance with the Scots in the Solemn 
League and Covenant by which there was to be uniformity in 
religion in England, Ireland, and Scotland. Thus Presbyteri- 
anism came to be considered the legal system, and about two 
thousand beneficed English clergymen were deprived of their 
livings. The Westminster Assembly, called by Parliament, 
met in 1643, and organized a church without bishops and 
without the liturgy. But Parliament did not give up its own 



414 



THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION 



siipreniacy 



in ecclesiastical affairs. There was no General 



Assembly to rule the Church, as in Scotland. Another party, 
the Independents, were gaining strength, and by degrees getting 
control in the army. Of their number was Oliver Cromwell, a 
gentleman of Huntingdonshire, who had been a member of 
the House of Commons, where he spoke for the first time in 
1629. 

Cromwell; Naseby. — By many of his adversaries, and by 
numerous writers since that day, Cromwell has been consid- 
ered a hypocrite in reli- 
gion, actuated by personal 
ambition. The Puritan 
poet, John Milton, who 
became his secretary after 
he acquired supreme power, 
gives to him the warm- 
est praise for integrity and 
piety, as well as for genius 
and valor. Of his religious 
earnestness after the Puri- 
tan type, and of his sincere 
patriotism, there is no rea- 
sonable doubt. As to the 
transcendent ability and 
sagacity that lay beneath a 
rugged exterior, there has never been any question. He raised 
and trained a regiment of Puritan troops, called the Ironsides, 
who were well-nigh invincible in battle, but whose camp was a 
conventicle for prayer and praise. With their help, the Koyal- 
ists were defeated at Marston Moor (1644). The army was 
now modeled anew by the Independents. The Self-denying 
Ordinance excluded members of Parliament from military 
command. Cromwell was made an exception. He came to 
the front, Avitli no other general except Fairfax, who had re- 
placed Essex, above him. Laud was condemned for high trea- 
son by an ordinance of Parliament, and beheaded (1645). The 




Cromwell 



THE COMMONWEALTH 415 

Royalist army experienced a crusliing defeat at Naseby in 
Jane of the same year. 

Trial and Execution of Charles Charles surrendered to the 

army of the Scots before Newark (1646) ; and by them he was 
delivered for a ransom, in the form of an indemnity for w^ar 
expenses, to their English allies. The King hoped much from 
the growing discord between the Presbyterians, who favored 
an accommodation wdth him if they could preserve their eccle- 
siastical system, and the Independents, who controlled the 
army, and were in favor of toleration, and of obtaining more 
guaranties of liberty against regal usurpation. In June, 1647, 
the army took the King out of the hands of Parliament, into 
their own custody. He negotiated with all parties, and was 
trusted by none. In 1648 he agreed, in a secret treaty with 
the Scots, to restore Presbyterianism. There were Royalist 
risings in different parts of England, which Cromwell sup- 
pressed. He defeated at Preston Pans a Scottish army, led 
into England by the Duke of Hamilton to help Charles. 
Cromwell's army were now determined to baf&e the plans of 
the Parliamentary majority. Colonel Pride, with a regiment 
of foot, excluded from the House of Commons above a hun- 
dred members. This measure, dictated by a council of officers, 
was called Pride's Purge. The Commons closed the House of 
Lords, and constituted a High Court of Justice for the trial of 
the King. He refused to acknowledge the tribunal, and be- 
haved with calmness and dignity to the end. He was con- 
demned and beheaded on a scaffold before his own palace at 
Whitehall, January 30, 1649. By one party he was execrated 
as a tyrant, wdiose life was a constant danger to freedom. By 
the other party he was revered as a martyr. His two eldest 
sons were Charles, born in 1630, and James, born in 1633. 

The Commonwealth. — The monarchy was now abolished. 
England was a republic governed by the House of Commons. 
Cromwell subdued a rebellion in Ireland which had been 
stirred up in the interest of the young Charles, son of the 
late king, and treated the insurgents with unsparing severity. 



416 THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION 

There was a savage massacre of the garrisons at Drogheda 
and Wexford. The massacre at Drogheda was by his orders. 
At Dunbar in Scotland, Cromwell defeated the Scots, who 
had received Charles with enthusiasm. Cromwell, in 1651, 
overtook Charles and his army at Worcester, and totally 
defeated him. Charles escaped in disguise to Normandy. 
Meantime, England was contending with Holland for su- 
premacy on the sea. The English Navigation Act struck a 
heavy blow at Dutch commerce, and a Avar followed in which 
the Dutch admirals, Van Tromp, De Euyter, and De Witt, 
found more than their match in the English commander 
Blake. Cromwell dictated terms of peace, and Holland 
attached itself to his policy (1654). 

Cromwell as Lord Protector There was a growing discord 

between the Parliament and the army. In 1653 Cromwell 
dissolved the Assembly by force and was made Lord Pro- 
tector by the Little Parliament which he called together. 
Though he declined the title of king, he reigned in state 
and exercised regal functions. His power was ever3^where 
respected. England took the proud and commanding place 
in Europe which she had not held since the death of Eliza- 
beth. Cromwell's power was not diminished in his closing 
years. Macaulay is one of those who pronounce him the 
greatest man that ever ruled England. 



I 



CHAPTER LIX 

COLONIZATION IN AMERICA ; ASIATIC NATIONS ; CULTURE 
AND LITERATURE (1517-1648) 

Colonization in America. — The European nations kept up 
their religious and political rivalry in exploring and coloniz- 
ing the new world. The French and English sent their fisher- 
men to the coasts of oSTewfoundland and Nova Scotia. The 
Spaniards brought negroes from the coast of Africa to the 
West Indies, to take the place of the Indians ; and thus 
the slave trade and negro slavery were established. They 
gave the name of Florida to the vast region stretching from 
the Atlantic to Mexico, and from the Gulf of Mexico to an 
undefined limit in the north. A Spanish expedition under 
De Soto discovered the Mississippi in 1539. Another expedi- 
tion under Menendez founded St. Augustine, the oldest town 
of the United States, in 1565. Before this date three unsuc- 
cessful attempts were made by French Huguenots to found 
settlements in America. The last company sent out by the 
French was mercilessly slaughtered by Menendez. In revenge, 
the French under De Gourgues massacred the Spanish set- 
tlers at Fort Caroline. English sailors explored the northern 
waters, while Sir Walter Ealeigh named the whole country 
between the French and Spanish possessions Virginia, in 
honor of the Virgin Queen, Elizabeth. Champlain, a gentle- 
man of France, sailed to Canada, and in 1608 founded Quebec. 
In 1609 the Dutch, under Hudson, sailed up the river now 
called by his name. Amsterdam traders established them- 
selves on the island of Manhattan, which led to the forma^ 
tion of the N"ew Netherlands Company. By this company 

417 



418 COLONIZATION IN AMERICA 

Fort Orange was built at the place afterwards called Albany 
(1615). The West India Company followed (1G21), with 
authority over New Netherlands, as the country was called. 
The powerful landowners were styled j^atroons. Their terri- 
tory reached to Delaware Bay ; and they had a trading post 
on the Connecticut, on the site of the present city of Hart- 
ford. In 1637 the Swedes made a settlement at the mouth 
of the Delaware Eiver, but in 1655 they were subdued by the 
Dutch. 

Settlement of Virginia. — The Virginia Company, divided 
into two branches, — the London Company, having control in 
the south, and the Plymouth Company, having control in the 
north, — received its patent of privileges from James I. (1603). 
A settlement by the Plymouth Company on the Kennebec 
Eiver (1607) — the Pophani Colony — was given up. In 1607, 
Jamestown in Virginia, as the name Virginia is now applied, 
was settled. A majority of the lirst colonists were gentlemen 
not wonted to labor. The military leader was Captain John 
Smith, whose life, according to his own account, was spared by 
Powhatan, an Indian chief. Powhatan's daughter Pocahontas 
married Eolfe, an Englishman. The Jamestown colony seemed 
likely to become extinct, when, in 1610, Lord Delaware arrived 
with fresh supplies and colonists. He was the first of a series 
of governors who ruled with almost unlimited authority. But 
the colony grew to be more independent, and in sympathy 
with the popular party in England. In 1619 the House of 
Burgesses first met, which brought in government by the peo- 
ple. At this time negroes began to be imported from Africa, 
and sold as slaves. 

The Pilgrim Settlement. — The first permanent settlement in 
New England was made at Plymouth, in 1620, by a company 
of English Christians, who came over in the 3f(:i>i/fower. They 
had previously fled from persecution to Holland and lived for 
a time in Leyden. They were Puritans of the class called 
Independents. Their civil polity was republican, and their 
Church polity was Congregational. They endured with heroic 



NEW ENGLAND 419 

and pious fortitude the severities of the northern winter, when 
half of their number died. 

Settlement of Massachusetts. — The colonists who founded 
Massachusetts were not separatists from the Church of Eng- 
land, but more conservative Puritans who desired many eccle- 
siastical changes which they could not obtain at home. In 
1629, the Massachusetts Bay Company was formed by charter 
from Charles I. The company sent out John Endicott to be 
governor of a settlement formed at Salem. It was finally 
resolved to transfer the company and its government to the 
shores of America. John Winthrop was chosen governor, and 
he and a large body of settlers founded Boston. Ships began 
to be built, and in 1636 Harvard College was founded at Cam- 
bridge. As the towns increased in number, a General Court 
or Legislative Assembly was established by the colony, in 
which each town was represented. The General Court superin- 
tended the affairs of both towns and churches. There were 
no bishops, and the liturgy was dispensed with in worship. 

Settlement of Connecticut After the Dutch had built a trad- 
ing post on the site of Hartford, people from Plymouth formed 
a settlement at Windsor, on the Connecticut, six miles above, 
Erom Boston and its neighborhood, there was a migration 
which settled Hartford. In 1637 the three towns of Windsor, 
Wethersfield, and Hartford became the distinct colony of Con- 
necticut. A colony led by the younger John Winthrop, under 
a patent given to Lord Say and Sele and Lord Brook, drove 
away the Dutch from the mouth of the Connecticut, and settled 
Saybrook (1635). This colony was afterwards united with the 
Connecticut colony. A third colony was established at New 
Haven (1638), which had an independent existence until 1665, 
when it was incorporated in Connecticut. 

Rhode Island ; New Hampshire and Maine. — Eoger Williams, 
a minister who was not allowed to live in Massachusetts on 
account of his differences with the magistrates, was the founder 
of Ehode Island (1636). He was opposed to restrictions in 
respect to worship, and for an entire separation of Church and 



420 COLONIZATION IN AMERICA 

State. Settlements were made in New Hampshire and in 
Maine on lands granted by the Plymouth Company to Sir 
Ferdinando Gorges (1623). 

Virginia. — After 1624 the King appointed the governor in 
Virginia, which, however, had its own assembly. The colony 
grew rapidly. The people lived on their estates or plantations. 
They employed indented servants and negro slaves, and raised 
tobacco in large quantities. 

Maryland. — Charles I. granted a charter to George Calvert, 
Lord Baltimore (1632), wdiose sons made the hrst settlement 
in jNIaryland. They w^ere lioman Catholics. By granting 
toleration to Protestants they at the same time secured the 
safety of the adherents of their ow^n faith. There Avere 
boundary disputes with Virginia; and Clayborne, a Puritan 
and a Virginian, at one time got control of the government. 
The Calverts regained it, however, under Charles II. 

New England; New York. — The colonists were Avatchfiil to 
prevent the King and the Commonw^ealth from taking away 
their self-government. The English Navigation Act, wdiich 
obliged them to use English ships for their exports and im- 
ports and to send all their products to ports belonging to 
England, was a grievance to them. Charles II. ceded New 
Netherlands to the Duke of York, his brother. New Amster- 
dam became New York, and Fort Orange became Albany. In 
1G74 the country was formally ceded to England by Holland. 

The Indians. — AVhen America was discovered, peoples were 
found in Mexico, Central America, and Peru, who were to a 
considerable degree civilized. The greater part of both con- 
tinents, however, was inhabited by tribes of Indians, who were 
savages with the ordinary virtues and vices of savage life. In 
North America, the Iroquois, or the Six Nations, occupied 
central New York. The Algonquins spread over nearly all 
the rest of the country east of the JMississippi and north of 
North Carolina. The Creeks, Choctaws, and ChickasaAvs were 
in the south. Noble men like John Eliot, the "Apostle to 
the Indians " (1604-1690), made efforts to teach and civilize 



SCIENCE AND PHILOSOPHY 



421 



them. This spirit was not always shown by the whites, how- 
ever, and there were many fierce conflicts between the Indians 
and the settlers. A league between the New England colonies 
for mutual counsel and aid was formed in 1643. 




Science, Philosophy, Literature 

Science. — In the 
period which ends 
with the Peace of 
Westphalia, wonder- 
ful progress was 
made in astronomy. 
Copernicus (1473- 
1543) detected the 
error of the Ptole- 
maic system, which 
had made the earth 
instead of the sun 
the center of the 
solar system. Gali- 
leo, Tycho Brahe, 
and Kepler are great 
names which belong 
to this period. 

Philosophy. — In 
philosophy, Aristotle 
continued to be the 
master in the most 

conservative schools, but the English philosopher Francis 
Bacon (1561-1626) led the opposition to the old ways of 
thinking. Erom his time the natural and physical sciences 
acquire a new importance. In the science of metaphysics, 
the modern epoch dates from the French metaphysician Des- 
cartes (1596-1650). Spinoza (1632-1677), of Jewish extrac- 
tion, born in Holland, also attained eminence as a philosopher. 




Bacon 



422 



ASIATIC NATIONS 



General Literature In England, Bacon, apart from his philo- 
sophical writings, towers above almost all his contemporaries 
in the field of letters. The merit of Shakespeare (1564-1616) 

is, however, so exalted 
and unique, that he al- 
most eclipses even the 
greatest names. Imagi- 
native poetry other than 
dramatic begins (as far 
as this period is con- 
cerned) with Spenser 
(1553-1599), and it 
ends with Milton (1608- 
1674), the Puritan poet. 
In Germany, the great 
literary product of this 
period was Luther's 
translation of the Bible. 
In Italy, the poet Tasso 
flourished from 1544 to 
1595, and in Portugal, Camoens from 1524 to 1579. The Span- 
iard Cervantes published Don Quixote early in the seventeenth 
century. In France, Eabelais (1483-1553) was perhaps the 
most original author of his day. He was a physician, phi- 
losopher, and humorist. 




Shakespeare 



Asiatic Nations 

China. — After 1583 Jesuit missionaries labored successfully 
for the conversion of the Chinese. But for certain dissensions 
which grew out of concessions made by the Jesuit fathers to 
the Chinese in matters of ritual, the Roman Catholic faith 
would have spread even more widely than it did. The great 
political event of the time was the seizure of the throne by the 
Manchu Tartars in 1644. The shaved head and the long cue 
are customs introduced by the Tartar conquerors. 



JAPAN AND INDIA 



423 



Japan. — Christianity was preached in Japan by Xavier, a 
successful Jesuit missionary, about the middle of the sixteenth 
century. The immoralities of Europeans, however, as well as 
the dread of foreign political domination, led the government 
to proscribe Christianity in 1614. Some of the converts re- 
volted, and a terrible massacre of all the Christians was the 
result. 

India In the latter half of the fourteenth and in the fif- 
teenth centuries, the greater part of India was ruled by dis- 
tinct Mohammedan dynasties. In 1525 began the conquests 
which ended in the establishment of the Mughal (Mogul) Em- 
pire in India. After 1600 the Portuguese no longer had the 
mono]3oly of the foreign trade; the Dutch and the English 
became their strong rivals. 




Japanese Temple at Nikko 



PERIOD III.— PROM THE PEACE OP WESTPHALIA TO THE 
PRENOH REVOLUTION (1648-1789) 

CHAPTER LX 

INTRODUCTION 

Character of the Period. — One feature of this period is the 
efforts made by the nations to improve their condition, espe- 
cially to increase the thrift and to raise the standing of the 
middle class. An illustration is what is called the " mercantile 
system " in France. Along with this change, there is progress 
in the direction of greater breadth in education and culture. 
In both of these movements rulers and peoples cooperate. 
Monarchical power, upheld by standing armies, reaches it.. 
climax. The result is internal order, secured by absolute 
authority. Great wars were carried on, mostly contests for 
succession to thrones. The outcome was an equilibrium in 
the European state system. 

First Section of the Period In the first half of the period, 

the East and the West of Europe are slightly connected. In 
the West, France gains the preponderance over Austria, until, 
by the Spanish war of succession, England restores the bal- 
ance. In the East, Sweden is in the van, until, in the great 
Northern war (1700-1721), Russia becomes predominant. 

Second Section of the Period. — Later, the East and the West 
of Europe are brought together in one state system, in par- 
ticular by the rise of the power of Prussia. 

Chief Events. — The fall of Sweden and the rise of Russia and 
Prussia are political events of capital importance. The mari- 
time supremacy of England, with her loss of the American col- 
onies, is another leading fact. In the closing part of the period 
appear the various signs of the great Revolution which was to 
break out in France near the end of the eighteenth century. 

424 



CHAPTER LXI 

THE PREPONDERANCE OF FRANCE; FIRST PART OF THE 
REIGN OF LOUIS XIV. (TO THE PEACE OF RYSWICK, 1697); 
THE RESTORATION OF THE STUARTS; THE ENGLISH 
REVOLUTION OF 1688 





;)^) 



,> 



Louis XIV.; Mazarin. — 

The great minister Eiclie- 
lieu died in 1642, and a 
few months later he was 
followed by Louis XIIL 
Louis XIV. (1643-1715) 
was then only five years 
old, and Mazarin, the heir 
of Eichelieu's power, stood 
at the helm, until his death 
in 1661. The rebellion of 
the Fronde was an attempt 
of the nobles to throw off 
the yoke laid on them by 
Richelieu, but it was sup- 
pressed, and after that re- 
sistance to the absolute 
monarch ceased. Louis's 
theory of government was 

expressed in the assertion " I am the State." For such a des- 
potism the work of Richelieu had paved the way. The King 
united with his appetite for power a relish for pomp and splen- 
dor. Versailles, the seat of his court, was made as splendid 
as architectural skill and lavish expenditure could make it. 

425 







Louis XIV. 



426 PREPONDERANCE OF FRANCE 

Colbert, his minister of finances, provided money for the 
costly wars, the luxurious palaces, the gorgeous festivities of 
his master, and for such internal improvements as manufac- 
turing establishments and canals. In the army such able gen- 
erals as Turenne, Conde, and Luxemburg were in command; 
while Yauban in the erection of impregnable fortifications 
showed himself the most skillful engineer of the age. 

Attack on the Netherlands. — Charles 11. of England sold 
Dunkirk to the French, and Louis laid claim to parts of 
the Netherlands as an inheritance of his queen. To check 
the conquests Avhich he made in pursuance of this claim, 
Holland formed a Triple Alliance with England and Sweden. 
Louis proceeded to attack Holland, and the alliance was ter- 
minated by the action of England, — for Charles 11. now 
joined Louis and offered help in the Netherlands in return 
for subsidies to assist him in establishing Catholicism in 
England. The advance of the French army upon Holland led 
to the murder of the grand pensionary John de Witt and his 
brother Cornelius in the streets of The Hague, on the ground 
that they were guilty of treachery in failing to defend the 
land against the enemy. William TIL, the Prince of Orange 
(1672-1702), assumed power. Frederick William, the Elector 
of Brandenburg, lent help to the patriots, and the German em- 
peror sided with them. The English Parliament forced Charles 
II. to conclude peace. In the battle of Sasbach, Turenne fell 
(1675), and at Fehrbellin the Elector's victory over the Swedish 
army, which had taken the side of France, laid the foundation 
of Prussian greatness. Throughout the contest Louis displayed 
a shrewd diplomacy, and was enabled by tlie Peace of Nim- 
Avegen (1678-1679) to keep most of his new conquests in the 
Netherlands, Avith the county of Ihirgundy and several impor- 
tant cities. 

Condition of France. — In France, manufactures flourished 
to an astonishing degree. In his court, the King established 
elaborate forms of etiquette, and almost made himself an object 
of worship. Plays, ballets, and banquets were the costly diver- 



THE GALLICAN CHURCH 427 

sions of the gay throngs of courtiers, male and female, in a 
community where sensuality was thinly veiled by ceremonious 
politeness and punctilious religious observances. With sen- 
sual propensities the King mingled a religious or supersti- 
tious vein. He was a liberal patron of poets, artists, and 
scholars. He erected great public works, and founded insti- 
tutions of learning. At Versailles, however, everything wore 
an artificial stamp, — from the trimming of the trees to the 
etiquette of the ballroom. There was, nevertheless, about it 
all a splendor and a fascination which caused the French 
fashions and the French language, with the levity and im- 
morality which traveled in their company, to spread in the 
higher circles of other European countries. 

The Galilean Church. — Under Louis a tendency was de- 
veloped to assert the rights of the national French Church 
and to limit the papal prerogative. In this reign a contro- 
versy arose between the Jansenists (who took their name from 
Jansenius, Bishop of Ypres) and the Jesuits. The former were 
strenuous advocates of the x^eculiar teachings of Augustine. 
Finally the Jansenists were proscribed by the King, and their 
cloister at Port Eoyal was leveled to the ground. After Maz- 
arin's death, Louis became more hostile to the Huguenots. 
In 1685 the Edict of Nantes — the charter of Protestant 
rights — was revoked. Emigration was forbidden, but nearly 
a quarter of a million Huguenot refugees escaped to Protes- 
tant countries, which they enriched by their skill and labor. 
The loss to France by the exile of the Huguenots was incal- 
culable. " iSTot only in industry, but in thought and mental 
activity there was a terrible loss. From this time, literature 
in France loses all spring and power." In short, it may be 
said that in exchange for national unity and a centralized 
government, France not only lost the Huguenot emigrants, 
but was compelled to bear the loss of character in the nobles 
of France, which went with the destruction of the spirit of 
independence, and she was subjected to the full sway of a 
monarchical despotism. 



428 RESTOEATION OF THE STUARTS 

Aggressions of Louis. — After the Nimwegen Treaty, Louis- 
began a series of aggressions in the direction of Germany, and 
lie went so far as to seize the city of Strassburg in time of 
peace and establish his domination there. The Emperor Leo- 
pold was directing his attention to the Turks, whose advance 
upon Hungary was checked by a victory gained over them by 
the imperial general at St. Gothard in 1664. In 1683 the 
Turks laid siege to Vienna, but the united German and Polish 
army under John Sobieski, King of Poland, gained a great 
victory over them under the walls of the city. . The Turkish 
power received another blow at the hands of Prince Eugene 
at Zenta, — a defeat which was followed by the Peace of 
Carlowitz, which resulted in the acquisition of Hungary and 
Transylvania by Austria. 

The Restoration in England (i66o). — Richard Cromwell suc- 
ceeded to the Protectorate, which he gave up at the end of 
eight months. Monk, the commander of the English troops 
in Scotland, refused to recognize the government set up by the 
officers of the army in London. The restoration of Charles II. 
was secured by the combined influence of the Presbyterians 
and the Episcopalians, and through the agency of Monk. The 
pledges of Charles to secure liberty of conscience were falsi- 
fied. He was void of moral principle and a profligate. The 
army was disbanded. Vengeance was taken on such "regi- 
cides," or judges of Charles I., as could be caught. The 
Cavalier party had their own w^ay. A stringent Act of Uni- 
formity was passed. Two thousand Presbyterians were turned 
out of their parishes. John Bunyan, the author of Pilgrim''s 
Progress, was kept in prison for twelve years. The sale of 
Dunkirk to France (1662) awakened general indignation. 

The Year of Wonders ; the Conduct of Charles. — In 1665 the 
Great Plague made frightful havoc with the population of 
London. It is estimated that not less than one hundred 
thousand people perished. In September, 1666, the Great 
Fire laid London in ashes, from the Tower to the Temple, 
and from the Thames to Smithfield. St. Paul's, the largest 



CHARLES II. 429 

cathedral in England, was burned and was afterwards replaced 
by the present church of the same name, of which Sir Chris- 
topher Wren was the architect. The King showed an unex- 
pected energy in trying to stay the progress of the flames, 
but neither public calamities nor the sorrow and indignation 
of many of his most loyal supporters could check the shame- 
less immorality and profligacy of his x^i'ivate life. His for- 
eign policy, too, was unpopular. In the war with Holland, 
the Dutch fleet blockaded the Thames. The people approved 
of the Triple Alliance against the French king, Louis XIV., 
but in the treaty of Dover (1670), Charles engaged to declare 
himself a Eoinan Catholic as soon as he could do so with 
prudence, and promised to aid his cousin Louis XIV. in his 
designs upon Holland. At this time the Cabal Ministry — so 
called from the first letters of the names of the ministers, 
which together made the word — was in power. War with 
Holland was declared in 1672, and the King susi^ended the 
laws against Roman Catholics and Dissenters. Parliament 
became so enraged at this attempt to weaken the Church of 
England that he was obliged to recall the declaration. Par- 
liament then passed the Test Act, which shut out all Dis- 
senters from ofiice. The Cabal Ministry was broken up, and 
the Earl of Danby became the chief minister. The mind of 
the nation was in an excited condition and was ready to give 
credence to the testimony of a joerjurer, Titus Gates, who gave 
information concerning an alleged Popish plot to overthrow 
the government and to murder the King and all Protestants. 
Many innocent Eoman Catholics were put to death and strin- 
gent methods were adopted shutting them out from ofiice. 

In the following year, however (1679), a measure was passed 
which became a great bulwark of the liberty of the subject. 
This was the Habeas Corpus Act, which made it possible for 
persons under arrest to obtain a prompt hearing in court and 
the production of the evidence upon which they had been 
confined. At this time, too, the party names of W^hig and 
Tory came into vogue. Insurgent Presbyterians in Scotland 



430 RESTORATION OF THE STUARTS 

had been called Wliigs, a Scotch word meanmg whey or sour 
milk. The nickname was now applied to those who wished 
to exclude the Duke of York from the line of succession to 
the throne on account of his being a Roman Catholic. The 
supporters of the court were called Tories, a term which 
meant originally Bomanist outlaws or robbers in the bogs of 
Ireland. The Whigs devised all sorts of plans to deprive 
Charles of his throne. Some of them were disposed to put 
forward Monmouth, the eldest of Charles's illegitimate sons. 
The E-ye-House Plot for the assassination of the King and his 
brother was the occasion of the trial and execution of two 
eminent patriots — William, Lord Eussell, and Algernon Sid- 
ney, both, it is believed, unjustly condemned. Charles had in 
secret attached himself to the Church of Eome, and in 1685 
he received the sacrament from a priest. 

James II. (1685-1688) ; Monmouth's Rebellion — A few months 
after James's accession, the Duke of Monmouth landed in Eng- 
land ; but his effort to get the crown failed. His forces, mostly 
made up of peasants, were defeated at Sedgemoor ; and he per- 
ished on the scaffold. Vengeance was taken upon all concerned 
in the revolt ; and Chief Justice Jeffreys, for his brutal con- 
duct in the Bloody Assizes, in which, savage as he was, he 
nevertheless became rich by the sale of pardons, was rewarded 
with the office of Lord Chancellor. 

James's Arbitrary Government James paid no heed to his 

promise to defend the Church of England. Of a slow and ob- 
stinate mind, he could not yield to the advice of moderate 
Eoman Catholics, and of the Pope, Innocent XL, but set out, 
by such means as dispensing with the laws, to restore the old 
religion, and at the same time to extinguish civil liberty. He 
turned out the judges who did not please him. He created a 
new Ecclesiastical Commission, for the coercion of the clergy, 
with the notorious Jeffreys at its head. After having treated 
with great cruelty the Protestant dissenters, he unlawfully 
issued a Declaration of Indulgence (1687) in their favor, in 
order to get their support for his schemes in behalf of his own 



WILLIAM AND MARY 431 

religion. In 1688 he sent to the Tower seven bishops who had 
signed a petition against the order requiring a second Declara- 
tion of Indulgence to be read in the churches. Popular sym- 
pathy was strongly with the accused, and the news of their 
acquittal was received in the streets of London with shouts of 

joy- 
Revolution of 1688 ; William and Mary (1689-1694) The birth 

of a Prince of Wales by his second wife, Mary of Modena, 
increased the disaffection of the English people towards the 
King. His daughter, by his first wife, Mary, was married to 
William, Prince of Orange and Stadtholder of Holland. By a 
combination of parties hostile to the King, William was invited 
to take the English throne. James, when it was too late, 
attempted in vain to disarm the conspiracy by concessions. 
William landed in safety at Torbay. He was joined by per- 
sons of rank. Lord Churchill, afterwards the celebrated Duke 
of Marlborough, left the royal force, of which he had the com- 
mand, and went over to him. The King's daughter, Anne, fled 
to the insurgents in the north. William was quite willing 
that James should leave the kingdom, and purposely caused 
him to be guarded negligently by Dutch soldiers. He fled to 
Erance never to return. Parliament declared the throne to be, 
on divers grounds, vacant, and promulgated a Declaration of 
Eight affirming the ancient rights and liberties of England. 
It offered the crown to William and Mary, who accepted it 
(1689). A few months later, the estates of Scotland bestowed 
upon them the crown of that country, Presbyterianism Avas 
made the established form of religion there. The union of the 
kingdoms was consummated under their successor, Anne, when 
Scotland began to be represented in the English Parliament. 

In Ireland, James II., with the help of the Erench, made a 
stout resistance and besieged Londonderry, the inhabitants of 
which held out with steadfast courage until help came from 
England. In 1690, in the battle of Boyne, William gained a 
decisive victory, leading his troops in person through the river 
Boyne with his sword in his left hand, his right arm having 



432 THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION 

been disabled by a wound. James was a spectator of the. 
fight at a safe distance. In England, in the meantime, many 
measures were adopted which tended to secure the liberty of 
the people. Safeguards against the usurpation by the crown 
were provided by the Bill of Eights. The Toleration Act 
afforded protection and freedom to Dissenters. The press was 
made free from censorship in 1695, and newspapers began to 
be published. Provision was also made to secure a fair trial 
to persons indicted for treason. By the Act of Settlement, in 
1701, the crown was settled, if there should be no heirs of 
Anne or of William, upon the Princess Sophia, Electress of 
Hanover, the daughter of Elizabeth of Bohemia, and grand- 
daughter of James I., and on her heirs, being Protestants, — 
Roman Catholics having been excluded from the line of suc- 
cession to the throne. 

The table which follows will show the nature of their 
claim : — 

Frederic "V., 1010-1082, Elector cand Kinff of Bohemia, 
m. Elizabeth, daughter of James I. of England. 



I I 

Charles Lewis, 1049-16S0. Sophia, m. Ernest Augustus, Elector of Hanover. 



I 1 I 

Charles, 1GS0-1GS5. Elizabeth, George I. of England. 

m. Philip, Duke of Orleans, <I. 1701. 

Philip, Duke of Orleans, was the onlj' brother of Louis XIV. From him descended 
King Louis Philippe (1830-1S4S). 

The Grand Alliance ; Peace of Ryswick Louis XI Y. was 

carrying on a war for the purpose of obtaining possession of 
the German territory of the Palatinate, to which he had made 
claim. In 1686 the League of Augsburg had been made by 
the German Emperor with Sweden, Spain, Bavaria, Saxony, and 
the Palatinate against France, and in 1689 the Grand Alliance 
was made which included England and Holland. It was at 
this time that the French overran the Palatinate, devastating 
the country through which they passed, and reducing the Castle 
of Heidelberg to ruins. 



PEACE OF RYSWICK 433 

In the war, the English and Dutch fleets, under Admiral 
Russell, defeated the French, and burned their ships, at the 
battle of La Hogue (1692). This battle was a turning point in 
naval history : " as at Lepanto," says Eanke, where the Turks 
were defeated (1571), " so at La Hogue, the mastery of the sea 
passed from one side to the other." But on the Continent suc- 
cess was now on one side and now on the other. At length 
Louis was moved by the exhaustion of his treasury, and the 
stagnation of industry in France, to conclude the Peace of 
Eyswick Avith England, Spain, and Holland (1697). The Duke 
of Savoy had been detached from the alliance. Most of the 
conquests on both sides were restored. William III. was 
acknowledged to be King of England. In the treaty with the 
emperor, France retained Strassburg. William was a man of 
sterling worth, but was less popular because he was a Dutch- 
man, and was cold in his manners. The plots of the Jacobites, 
as the adherents of James were called, did more than anything 
else to make the King popular with his subjects. 



CHAPTER LXII 

WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION (TO THE PEACE OF 
UTRECHT, 1713) ; DECLINE OF THE POWER OF FRANCE ; 
POWER AND MARITIME SUPREMACY OF ENGLAND 

Occasion of the War. — The death of Charles IT of Spain 

(1700) was followed by the War of the Spanish Succession. 
Charles had no children. It had been agreed in treaties, to 
Avhich Trance was a party, that the Spanish monarchy should 
not be united either to Austria or to Trance ; and that Arch- 
duke Charles, son of the Emperor Leopold I., should have 
Spain and the Indies. But Charles II. of Spain left a will 
making Louis's second grandson, Philip, Duke cf Anjou, the 
heir of all his dominions, with the condition annexed that the 
crowns of Trance and Spain should not be united. Instigated 
b}^ dynastic ambition, Louis made up his mind to break the 
previous agreements, and seize the inheritance for Philip. 
Philip V. thus became King of Spain. On the death of James 
11. (1701), Louis recognized his son James, called the Pre- 
tender, as king of Great Britain. This act, as a violation of 
the Treaty of Ryswick, and as an arrogant intermeddling on 
the part of a foreign ruler, excited the wrath of the English 
people, and inclined them to war. A family union of Trance 
and Spain would have shut the English and the Dutch out of 
the Spanish trade and opened up to the Trench the trade 
of the Spanish colonies. The Grand Alliance against Trance 

(1701) included the Empire, England, Holland, Brandenburg 
(or Prussia), and afterwards Portugal and Savoy (1703). 
William III. died in 1702, and was succeeded by Anne, the 
sister of his deceased wife, and the second daughter of James II. 

434 



EVENTS OF THE WAR 435 

The following table exhibits the several claims to the 
Spanish succession : — 

Philip III., King of Spain, 1598-1611. 



I \ 1 

Louis XIII. of France, m. Anne. Philip IV., 1621-1655. Maria, m. Emperor Ferdinand III. 



r 

m. (2) Mariii 



I 
Louis XIY., m. (1) Maria Charles II., Margaret Theresa, m. Emperor Leopold I., 

on. (3) Eleanor, 

daughter of 



Theresa. 1655-1700. 

Louis, the Dauphin. 



Elector Palatine. 

I 



I I 

Philip of Anjou 1 Maximilian of Bavaria, m. Maria Antonia. Joseph I., Charles VI. ^ 

(Philip V. of Spain), | d. 1711. 

d. 1746. Joseph Ferdinand, ^ Electoral Prince of 

Bavaria. 

Events of the War. — The Duke of Marlborough, the English 
general, was avaricious, and, like other prominent public men 
in England at that time, was guilty of double dealing in that 
he deserted the service of James for that of William, while he 
still kept up at times a correspondence with the exiled house. 
He was nevertheless one of the greatest generals that the world 
has ever seen,. Of a stately and winning presence, he was cool 
and courageous in battle, and it has been said of him that he 
" never committed a rash act and never missed an opportunity 
for striking an effective blow." With him Prince Eugene of 
Savoy cooperated. His career as a soldier was long and bril- 
liant. In Italy he defeated more than one French general. 
He came to Germany when Marlborough was invading the 
Spanish Netherlands. In the folloAving year the two great 
soldiers with united forces defeated the French and Bavarian 
armies at Blenheim (or Hochstadt). This famous victory raised 

1 Rival claimants for the Spanish crown after Charles II., the elder brother 
of each having resigned his pretensions. 

2 Recognized as heir of Charles II. of Spain until his death. 



436 WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION 

Marlborough's reputation to its highest point. Other brilliant - 
successes followed. In 1708 he and Eugene won a great vic- 
tory at (3udenarde, which broke down the hopes of Louis, and 
moved him to offer large concessions. The allies, however, 
made greater demands upon France than Louis was wdlling to 
comply Avith, and their generals were again victorious. Party 
strifes in England, however, were undermining Marlborough's 
power. At length, having been guilty of traitorous conduct, 
he was removed from the command, and in 1713 the Peace of 
Utrecht was concluded between England, France, Holland, 
Prussia, Savoy, and Portugal. In the following year, the 
Peace of Eastadt and Baden was concluded with the Emperor. 
One result of these treaties w^as the cession by France to 
England of Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and the Hudson Bay 
territory, while Spain yielded Gibraltar and Minorca to Eng- 
land, and allowed the English a monopoly of the slave trade 
with her colonies, and the right to import into them a limited 
amount of manufactures. There Avas a stipulation that the 
crowns of France and Spain should never be united. The 
emperor did not recognize the Bourbons in Spain. Austria 
received three appanages of the Spanish monarchy — the Span- 
ish Netherlands, Naples, Sardinia, and jMilan — but not Sicily. 
The Elector of Brandenburg was recognized as King of Prussia. 
Last Days of Louis XIV. — In the space of two years Louis 
had lost much territory, and many of the members of his own 
family. Dying in 1715, he left France overwhelmed with debt, 
its resources exhausted, and its maritime poAver prostrate. John 
Law, a Scottish adventurer and gambler, undertook the rescue 
of national finances by means of a bank Avhich he was allowed 
to found. Law's scheme excited a fever of speculation in 
the ranks of the people. The bank failed, and Law, flying from 
the kingdom, died in poverty at Venice. In England, a dispute 
between Oxford and Bolingbroke, ministers of Anne, Avorried 
her to such an extent that she died in 1714. One of the most 
important CA^ents of her reign had been the union of England 
and Scotland in 1707. 



GEORGE I. 437 



ENGLAND. — HOUSE OF HANOVER 
George I., 1T1-4-1T27, m. Sophia Dorothea of Zell. 



I 
George II., 1T2T-1T60, m. Caroline, daughter of John Frederick, Margrave of Anspach. 



Frederick, Prince of Wales, d. 1751, m. Augusta of Saxe Gotha. 

^-1 i 

Augusta, George III., 1760-1820, 

m. Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick, m. Charlotte o^ Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 



I I \ i 

Caroline, m. George IV., 1820-1830. William IV., Edward, Duke of Kent, d. 1820, 

1830-1837. m. Victoria of Saxe Coburg. 

Victoria, succeeded 1887, 
■m. Albert of Saxe Coburg. 



Reign of George I. — George I. was the first king of tlie house 
of Hanover. His private life was immoral. His first ministers 
were Whigs. The Pretender, James Edward (son of James 
II.), with the aid of Tory partisans, endeavored to recover the 
English crown. His standard was raised in the Highlands 
and in north England (1715), but this Jacobite rebellion was 
crushed. After the rebellion of 1715, a law was passed, which 
is still in force, allowing a Parliament to continue for the term 
of seven years. A second conspiracy in 1717 had the same 
fate. England had an experience analogous to that of France 
with Law, with the South Sea Company, which had a monopoly 
of trade with the Spanish coasts of South America, which was 
allowed by the Peace of Utrecht. A rage for speculation was 
followed by a panic. The estates of the directors of the com- 
pany were confiscated by Parliament for the benefit of the 
losers. Robert Walpole was made first minister, a place w^hich 
he held under George I. and George II. for twenty-one years. 
William and Anne had attended the meetings of the Cabinet. 
George I., who could not speak English, staid away. From 
this time, one of the ministers was called the Prime Min- 
ister. 



438 SUPEEMACY OF ENGLAND 

The Reign of George II. — George II. was systematic in his- 
ways, frugal, willful, aud fond of war. In his private life, he 
followed the evil ways of his father. Walpole's influence was 
predominant. The clever Queen Caroline lent him her sup- 
port. Walpole reluctantly entered into war with Spain (1739), 
on account of the measures adopted by that power to prevent 
English ships from carrying goods, in violation of the Treaty 
of Utrecht, to her South American colonies. The principal 
success of England was the taking of Porto Bello by Admiral 
Vernon. 

In the War of the Austrian Succession (1741) England took 
part with Austria, and the King in person fought in Germany. 
In 1745 Prince Charles Edw^ard Stuart, the young Pretender 
(whose father, the old Pretender, styled himself James III.), 
landed in the Highlands. He succeeded in marching into 
England as far as Derby, at the head of the Jacobite force, but 
had to turn back and retreat to Scotland. The contest was 
decided by the victory of the English under the Duke of Cum- 
berland, at Culloden (1746), which was attended by an atro- 
cious slaughter of the wounded. Culloden was the last battle 
fought in behalf of the Stuarts. Nearly eighty Jacobite con- 
spirators, one of whom was an octogenarian. Lord Lovat, were 
executed as traitors. These Jacobites were the last persons 
who were beheaded in England. The Pretender wandered in 
the Highlands and Avestern islands for five months, under 
different disguises. He was concealed and aided by a Scottish 
lady, Flora Macdonald. Then he escaped to the Continent, 
where he led a miserable and dissipated life, and died in 1788. 
His brother Henry, Cardinal York, the last of the Stuarts in 
the male line, died in 1807. 



CHAPTER LXIII 

THE GREAT NORTHERN WAR; THE FALL OF SWEDEN; 
GROWTH OF THE POWER OF RUSSIA 

Sweden. — Charles XII. (1697-1718) was in his boyhood a 
student of the exploits of Alexander the Great, whom he took 
as his model of an adventurous warrior. Sweden at this 
period was a powerful state, with a strong and well-disciplined 
army, but the rashness and obstinacy of Charles at last occa- 
sioned its downfall. Russia, Poland, and Denmark, with the 
support of Patkul, a disaffected Livonian subject of Sweden, 
joined in an attack on the youthful monarch (1699). Charles 
received assistance from William III. of England. The King 
was as brave as a lion, and he attacked the Russians with 
such fury that he gained over them a series of brilliant vic- 
tories. He carried the war into Saxony and forced Frederick 
Augustus II., — Augustus the Strong, — Duke of Saxony, to re- 
nounce his claim to the Polish crown. Patkul was surrendered 
to the Swedish monarch and was cruelly put to death. In 1708 
Charles undertook to invade Russia. After a defeat of the Rus- 
sians at Smolensk, Peter won a great victory at Pultowa (1709). 
Charles was compelled to fly to Turkey, where he succeeded in 
bringing about a war between the Sultan and the Czar. After 
a time, he returned to Sweden. His plan was to invade Norway, 
to land in Scotland, and with the help of Spain, and of the 
Jacobites, to restore the Stuarts to the English throne. He 
was, however, killed in 1718, while besieging Eriedrichshall, 
a fortress in Norway. As a result of the war, the power of 
the Swedish crown was greatly reduced. Augustus was recog- 
nized as King of Poland. By the Peace of Xystadt (1721) 

439 



440 GROWTH OF THE POWER OF RUSSIA 

Russia obtained large accessions of territory and took the 
place amoni,^ the powers which Sweden had occupied. 

Russia ; Peter the Great. — Peter the Great, the ruler who 
brought Kussia into the ranks of European powers of the first 
class, belonged to the house of Romanoff. His reign extended 
from 1082 to 1725. As a boy he was studious and acquired 
nnich knowledge of various courts. His life was often in 
much danger at the hands of his enemies, of whom the chief 
was his half-sister, Sophia. At the age of seventeen, however 
(1689), he was able to crush his enemies and he shut Sophia up 
in a monastery for the remainder of her days. He traveled 
through Germany, Holland, and England, and with his own 
hands he worked at ship building in the dock yards of Zaandam. 
He won important cessions from the Turks and turned his 
ambitious thoughts towards the Baltic, for he was bent on 
making Russia a naval power. He took the title of emperor 
and transferred the capital from Moscow to St. Petersburg. 
He abolished the dignity of Patriarch of the National Church 
and made the Holy Synod, of which the Czar is president, the 
supreme ecclesiastical authority. Despite his veneer of cul- 
ture, Peter never succeeded in ridding himself of his innate 
barbarism. While his queen, Catherine, surrounded herself 
with splendor, he himself lived in frugal fashion in his new 
capital. It has been said of him that " he brought Russia pre- 
maturely into the circle of European politics. The result has 
been to turn the rulers of Russia away froin home affairs, and 
the regular development of internal institutions, to foreign 
politics and the creation of a great military power." Peter 
died at the age of fifty-three in consequence of plunging into 
icy water to save a boat in distress. 



CHAPTER LXIV 

WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION ; GROWTH OF THE 
POWER OF PRUSSIA ; THE DESTRUCTION OF POLAND 

The Pragmatic Sanction. — On the death of Augustus II., there 
was trouble about the succession to the Polish crown. In the 
settlement, the duchy of Lorraine became a possession of 
France (1735). The Emperor's son-in-law (afterwards Francis 
I.) was to have Tuscany ; and France, in connection with the 
other powers, assented to the Pragmatic Sanction, according to 
which the hereditary possessions of Austria were to descend 
intact in the female line. It was expected that the Empire 
would pass along with them. 

Prussia ; Frederick William I. — In 1611 the duchy of Prus- 
sia and the mark or electorate of Brandenburg were joined 
together. Under the Great Elector, Frederick William (1640- 
1688), the military strength of the electorate was increased. 
Frederick, his son (1688-1713), with the Emperor's license, 
took the title of King of Prussia (Frederick I.). He built up 
the city of Berlin, and encouraged art and learning. King 
Frederick "William I. (1713-1740), unlike his predecessor, was 
exceedingly frugal in his court. He was upright and just in 
his principles, but extremely rough in his ways, and governed 
his own household, as well as his subjects generally, with a 
Spartan rigor. Individuals whom he met in the street, whose 
conduct or dress he thought unbecoming, he did not hesitate to 
scold, and he even used his cane to chastise them on the spot. 
He cared nothing for literature : artists and players were his 
abomination. He favored industry, and was a friend of the 
working class. Everything was done with despotic energy. 

442 



FREDERICK THE GREAT 



443 



He disciplined the military force of Prussia, and gathered at 
Potsdam a regiment of tall guards, made up of men of gigantic 
height, who were brought together from all quarters. He left 
to his son, Frederick 11. (1740-1786), a strong army and a full 
treasury. 

Character of Frederick the Great. — Young Prederick had no 
sympathy with his father's austere ways. The strict system of 
training arranged 
for him, in which 
he was cut off 
from Latin and 
from other studies 
for which he had 
a taste, his time 
all parceled out, 
and a succession 
of tasks rigor- 
ously ordained for 
him, he found a 
yoke too heavy to 
bear. Once he at- 
tempted to escape 
to the court of his 
uncle, George II. 
of England ; but 
the scheme was 
discovered, and 
the incensed father was strongly inclined to execute the decree 
of a court-martial, which pronounced him worthy of death. 
Frederick, from the window of the place where he was con- 
fined, saw Katte, his favorite tutor, who had helped him in 
his attempt at flight, led to the scaffold, where he was hanged. 
In the later years of the old King, the relations of father and 
son were improved. The Prince grew up with a strong predi- 
lection for French literature, and for the French habits and 




Fkederick the Great 



fashions — free-thinkim 



religion 



included — which were 



444 WAR OF thp: Austrian succession 

now spreading over Europe. On his accession to the throne, 
Frederick broke up the Potsdam regiment of giants, and called 
back to Halle the philosopher Wolf, whom his father had ban- 
ished. Frederick w^as visited by Yoltaire, who at a later day 
took up his abode for a time with him in Berlin. But event- 
ually they parted compan}^ with mutual disgust, although they 
never wholly lost their intellectual sympathy with each other. 
As a soldier, Frederick had not the military genius of the 
greatest captains. He applied superior talents to the dis- 
charge of the duties of a king, and to the business of war. 
He was cool, knew how to profit by his errors and to repair 
his losses, and to press forward in the darkest hour. Napo- 
leon said of him that " he was great, especially at critical 
moments." 

War of the Austrian Succession. — Charles VI. was succeeded, 
in 1740, by his daughter Maria Theresa, Avho united in her 
character many of the finest qualities of a woman and of a 
sovereign. Notwithstanding the Pragmatic Sanction, by which 
all the Austrian lands were to be hers, different princes deemed 
the occasion favorable for seizing on the whole, or on portions, 
of her inheritance. Augustus III. of Poland was a participant 
in the plot. Frederick 11. of Prussia claimed Silesia, and, 
after defeating the Austrians, seized the greater part of that 
district. Soon after, the French and Bavarians overran Aus- 
tria. The Bavarian Elector was chosen emperor. Even the 
Elector of Hanover (George II. of England) engaged not to 
assist the Empress. She, however, proved herself a veritable 
Minerva. She aroused the enthusiasm of her Hungarian sub- 
jects, drove the Bavarian and French troops into Austria, 
entered Bavaria and captured Munich. In the Peace of 
Breslau she ceded Silesia to Frederick. She was crowned at 
Prague (1743), and at length gained an ally in George II. of 
England. Frederick was now the ally of France, and France 
was at war with England and Austria. The Bavarian Elector 
made peace with Austria, and gave his vote for the office of 
emperor to Francis, the husband of Maria Theresa, who was 



THE SEVEN YEARS' WAK 445 

crowned at Frankfort (1745). The war went on for three 
years longer, when it was terminated by the Peace of Aix-la- 
Chapelle, by which there was a general restoration of all con- 
quests, Prussia gaining Silesia. To this loss. Maria Theresa 
was loath to submit, and an alliance was made between Austria 
and Russia, whose empress, Elizabeth, was at enmity with Fred- 
erick, because of his sarcastic remarks about her personal vices. 

The Seven Years' War — The Seven Years' War followed, 
Frederick's only ally being George II. of England. He gained 
several great victories over the Austrians, and at first van- 
quished the Russians, but was defeated by them at Hochkirch 
(1758). Of the numerous battles in this prolonged war, in 
which the military talents of Frederick were strikingly shown, 
it is possible to refer only to a few of the most important. 
He was defeated by the united Austrians and Russians at 
Kunersdorf ; and so completely that he was for the moment 
thrown into despair, and wrote to his minister, '^ All is lost." 
In 1760 Berlin was surprised and burned by the Russians, but 
Frederick soon defeated the Austrians in two battles. In 
1761, however, his situation was in the highest degree perilous. 
His resources were apparently exhausted. Spain joined the 
ranks of his enemies. He faced them all with resolution, but 
owned in his private letters that his hopes were gone. 

End of the War. — At this time there was a turn of events in 
his favor, owing greatly to aid rendered by the Russians, 
who finally helped him to a victory over the Austrians (1762). 
Austria was exhausted and ready for peace. Prussia and 
Austria agreed to the Peace of Hubertsburg, by which Prussia 
retained Silesia, and promised her vote for the Archduke 
Joseph, son of Maria Theresa, as King of Rome and successor 
to the Empire (1763). 

Position of Prussia. ^Joseph 11. succeeded his father as 
emperor in 1765, and was associated by his mother, Maria 
Theresa, in the government of her hereditary dominions. 
From the conclusion of the Seven Y^ears' War, Prussia took 
her place as one of the five great powers of Europe. 



446 THE BRITISH IN INDIA 

The British Indian Empire. — It was during this period that 
the empire of the British in India grew up out of the mercan- 
tile settlements of a trading corporation, the East India Com- 
pany. The result was effected after a severe struggle with 
the French. After the beginning of the eighteenth century, 
the Mughal empire at Delhi declined. Insubordinate native 
princes admitted only a nominal control over them. The 
effect of successive Mahratta and Afghan invasions was such 
that when England and Erance went to war in Europe, in 
1745, India was broken up into different sovereignties, to say 
nothing of the great number of petty chieftains who were 
practically independent. Pondicherry was the chief Erench 
settlement. There was a perpetual struggle between the 
Erench and English, even when the two nations at home were 
at peace. In 1756 Calcutta was taken from the English by 
the Nabob of Bengal, and many Englishmen died in the close 
room of the military prison in which they were shut up, — 
the Black Hole. In 1757 Clive defeated a great army of 
the natives, with whom were a few French, in the decisive 
battle of Plassey. He had previously shown his indomitable 
courage in the seizure of Arcot, and in its defense against a 
host of besiegers. The victory at Plassey secured the British 
supremacy, which gradually extended itself over the country. 
The various local sovereignties became like Roman provinces. 
On the death of Clive, Warren Hastings was made governor 
general (1772). After his recall, he was impeached (1788), on 
charges of cruelty and oppression in India, and his trial by the 
House of Lords did not end until seven years after it began. 
He was then acquitted. Among the conductors of the im- 
peachment on the part of the House of Commons, were the 
celebrated orators Edmund Burke and Eichard Brinsley Sheri- 
dan. In 1784 the power of the East India Company had been 
restricted by the establishment of the Board of Control. Up 
to that time the Indian Empire, made up of dependent and 
subject states, had been governed by the sole authority of the 
company. 



PARTITION OF POLAND 447 

Catherine II. of Russia. — Catherine II. (1762-1796) in her 
private life was notoriously dissolute. If she did not con- 
nive at the assassination of her husband, Peter III., she 
heaped gifts upon his murderers. In her policy she aimed 
to strengthen Kussia, especially towards the sea. This occa- 
sioned successful conflicts with the Turks. 

The Partition of Poland. — At first inimical to Frederick the 
Great, Catherine afterwards made an alliance with him. She 
compelled the election of one of her lovers to the throne of 
Poland. Poland was mainly Catholic ; and the confederation 
of Bar (1768), made by the Poles to j^revent the toleration of 
Greek Christians and Protestants, was defeated by a Pussian 
army, and broken up. The Turks were worsted in the war 
which they waged in defense of the confederacy. As one re- 
sult, Pussia gained a firm footing on the north coasts of the 
Black Sea. The '^ free veto," oppression of the peasantry, 
their distress, and the general want of union and public spirit, 
had reduced Poland to a miserable condition. Catherine, how- 
ever, favored no reforms there looking to an improvement in 
the constitution. She preferred to prolong the anarchy and 
confusion. She wished to make the death of Poland in part a 
suicide. At length she invited Prussia and Austria to take 
part with her in the first seizure and partition of Polish terri- 
tory (1772). Each took certain provinces. In 1792 the sec- 
ond, and in 1795 the final, partition of Poland was made by 
its three neighbors. The capture of Warsaw, and the defeat 
of the national rising under Kosciusko, obliterated that an- 
cient kingdom from the map of Europe. It should be said 
that a large part of the territory that Kussia acquired had 
once been Kussian, and was inhabited by Greek Christians. 
By the division of Poland, Eussia was brought into close con- 
tact with the AVestern powers. The Crimea was incorporated 
with Russia in 1783. After a second war, provoked by her, 
with the Turks, who now had the Austrians to help them, the 
Russian boundaries through the Treaty of Jassy (1792) were 
carried to the Dniester. 



CHAPTER LXV 

CONTEST OF FRANCE AND ENGLAND IN AMERICA; WAR 
OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE; THE CONSTITUTION OF 
THE UNITED STATES 

In this period the United States of America achieved their 
independence, and began their existence as a distinct nation. 

The English Colonies. — The English colonies south of Can- 
ada had become thirteen in number. In the southern part of 
what was called Carolina, Charleston was settled in 1680. 
More than a century before (1562), a band of Huguenots under 
Ribault had entered the Iiarbor of Port Royal, and given this 
name to it, and had built a fort on the river May, which they 
called Charlesf ort — the Carolina — in honor of King Charles 
IX. of France. In 1663 the territory thus called, south of 
Virginia, was granted to the Earl of Clarendon. In it were 
two distinct settlements in the northern part. The English 
philosopher John Locke drew up a constitution for Carolina, 
which was abandoned in 1693. The rights of the proprietors 
were purchased by George II. ; and the region was divided 
(1729) into two royal provinces, North and South Carolina, 
each province having a governor appointed by the king, and 
an assembly elected by the people. Besides the English, 
Huguenots and emigrants from the north of Ireland, as well as 
from Scotland, planted themselves in South Carolina. 

Georgia was settled by James Oglethorpe, who planted his 
colony at Savannah. He had a charter from George II., in 
whose honor the region was named (1733). Soon the trus- 
tees gave up their charter, and the government was shaped 
like that of the other colonies (1754). John Wesley, after- 

448 



ENGLISH AND FRENCH COLONIES 449 

wards the founder of Methodism, sojourned for a time in 
Georgia. 

The settlement of New Jersey was first made by members 
of the Society of Friends, or Quakers, sent over by William 
Penn, the son of an English admiral, and familiar at court. 
The Quakers gave up the government to the crown, and from 
1702 to 1738 it formed one province with New York. 

Pennsylvania was granted to Penn himself, by the King, in 
discharge of a claim against the crown. Penn procured also a 
title to Delaware. He sent out emigrants in 1681, and the 
next year came himself. By him Philadelphia was founded. 
He dealt kindly with all the settlers, and made a treaty of 
peace and amity with the Indians. The government organized 
by Penn was just and liberal. In 1703 the inhabitants of 
Delaware began to have a governing assembly of their own. 

The French Colonies. — Among the French explorers in 
America, La Salle is one of the most famous. He made his 
way through the region of the Upper Lakes, reached the Mis- 
sissippi, and floated his boats down to its mouth. He gave 
the name of Louisiana to the valley of the great river, in honor 
of his king Louis XIV. He built Fort St. Louis, and planned 
an unsuccessful expedition which had for its purpose the build- 
ing of a fort at the mouth of the Mississippi. The Indians, 
were as a rule friendly to the French in their conflicts with 
the English. The fierce Iroquois, however, were hostile to 
them, and they perpetrated a massacre at La Chine, near Mont- 
real. In revenge, the French and their Indian allies made a 
murderous attack upon the English settlement in Schenectady 
which led to two wars — King William's War (1697) and 
Queen Anne's War (1702-1713). The conflicts between the 
English and French in America were connected with the wars 
between the two nations in Europe. In King George's War, 
a part of the War of the Austrian Succession, an expedition 
from Boston captured Louisburg, an important fortified place. 
For the next twenty years the struggle went on between the 
two nations for supremacy in America. The French had the 



450 CONTEST OF FRANCE AND ENGLAND 

help of their Indian allies, while the English were sometimes , 
aided by the Iroquois. 

The French and Indian War (1756-1763) was a part of the 
Seven Years' War in Europe. A British officer, General 
Braddock, led a force from Fort Cumberland in Maryland 
against Eort Du Quesne, at the junction of the Alleghany and 
Monongahela rivers. Disregarding the advice of George 
Washington, who was on his staff, he suffered himself to be 
surprised by the French and Indians and was mortally 
wounded. Washington showed great courage and presence of 
mind and led the remainder of the army to Philadelphia 
(1755). Before this time, Washington had, as envoy, made a 
perilous journey to demand of the French commander his 
reasons for invading the Ohio Valley. At about the time 
of Braddock's campaign, the English in Nova Scotia expelled 
the French Acadians from their homes and subjected them 
to severe hardships, which included the separation of families. 
The story of Evangeline, which Longfellow has celebrated in 
his poem of that name, is founded upon this incident. After 
an English victory at Lake George (1755), the French under 
Montcalm achieved various successes, and in 1757 captured 
Fort William Henry. 

The Campaigns of 1758 and 1759. — The English were dissat- 
isfied at their want of success on the Continent and in Amer- 
ica. But they had advantages for prosecuting the conflict. 
The French, Avho had been successful at the outset, had to 
bring their troops and supplies from Europe. They were, to 
be sure, disciplined troops ; but the English had the substan- 
tial strength which was derived from the prosperous agricul- 
ture, and still more from the brave and self-respecting spirit, 
of their American colonies. The elder William Pitt, after- 
wards Earl of Chatham, again entered the cabinet, and began 
to manage the contest (1757). The French held posts at 
important points, — Fort Du Quesne, where Pittsburg now 
stands, for the defense of the West ; Crown Point and Ticon- 
deroga on Lake Champlain, guarding the approach to Canada j 



CAMPAIGNS OF 1758 AND 1759 451 

Niagara, near the Great Lakes and the region of the fur trade ; 
and Louisburg, on the coast of Nova Scotia, which protected the 
fisheries, and was a menace to New England. To seize these 
posts, and to break down the French power in America, was 
now the aim of the English. In 1758 an expedition of General 
Abercrombie, at the head of sixteen thousand men, against 
Crown Point and Ticonderoga, was repulsed. Lord Howe was 
killed, and the army retreated. Louisburg, to the joy of the 
colonies, was captured anew by Lord Amherst (1758). Fort 
Du Quesne was taken (1758), and named Fort Pitt; Fort 
Frontenac on Lake Ontario was destroyed. 

The object of the campaign of 1759 was the conquest of 
Canada. Fort Niagara was captured by Sir William Johnston 
(1759). Ticonderoga and Crown Point were taken, and the 
French driven into Canada. Then came the great expedition 
under Major General Wolfe, a most worthy and high-spirited 
young officer, which left Louisburg for the capture of Quebec, 
the " Gibraltar of America." The attempt of Wolfe to storm 
the heights in front of the city, which were defended by the 
army of Montcalm, failed of success. From a point far up 
the river, he embarked a portion of his troops in the night, 
and, silently descending the stream, climbed the heights in 
the rear of the city, and intrenched himself on the Plains 
of Abraham. In the battle which took place in the morn- 
ing, both commanders, Wolfe and Montcalm, were mortally 
wounded. Wolfe lived just long enough to be assured of 
victory; Montcalm died the next day. Five days after the 
battle the town surrendered (1759). 

As Wolfe and his troops floated silently down the stream, 
the general repeated to the officers about him, Gray's Elegy 
in a Country Churchy ard, which had been written but a short 
time before. "Among the rest," says Mr. Parkman, "was the 
verse which his fate was soon to illustrate, — ' The paths of 
glory lead but to the grave.' ^ Gentlemen,' he said, as his 
recital ended, 'I would rather have written those lines than 
take Quebec' None were there to tell him that the hero is 



452 WAR OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE 

greater than the poet." In the following year, Montreal and. 
all Canada were in the hands of the English. The transfer of 
Canada to the Englis'h did not suit the Indians. Pontiac, chief 
of the Ottawas, organized an attack upon the English which 
spread from the Mississippi to Canada. After three years of 
struggle, the Indians Avere finally defeated and a treaty of 
peace was concluded with their leader (1766). 

Condition of the Colonies. — At the close of the French War, 
the population of the thirteen colonies probably exceeded two 
millions, of whom not far from one-fourth Avere negro slaves. 
The forms of government in the different colonies varied. All 
of them had their own legislative assemblies. Charles II. had 
annulled the Massachusetts charter in 1684, and James II. 
attempted to revoke all the New England charters. This 
systematic usurpation was carried forward by Sir Edmund 
Andros, who was appointed governor of New England. The 
English revolution of 1688, however, resulted in restoring to 
the colonies many of their privileges. Prior to the revolution, 
it may be said that there were three forms of government 
among the colonies : (1) Proprietary governments (that is, 
government by owners or proprietors). To this class belonged 
Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland. (2) Charter govern- 
ments (the governors being chosen by the people). Of this 
class were Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Massachusetts. 
(3) Poyal governments (the governor and council being ap- 
pointed by the king.) The royal colonies were New Hamp- 
shire, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, North and South 
Carolina. 

The chief occupation of the colonies was agriculture. In 
the north, wheat and corn were raised, while in Virginia and 
Maryland, great crops of tobacco were exported. Common 
schools were early established by law in New England and by 
the Dutch in New York. Harvard College had been founded 
in 1636, and Yale in 1700. William and Mary, in Virginia, 
was founded in 1693. In Pennsylvania, chiefly through the 
influence of Benjamin Eranklin, the University of Pennsyl- 



CONDITION OF THE COLONIES 453 

vania was founded in 1740. Pliiladelpliia at this time had 
a population of thirty thousand. It was the largest city in 
America, and was held in high esteem for its intelligence and 
refinement. In the eastern colonies theology was the absorb- 
ing theme of inquiry and discussion. The people were mostly 
Congregationalists. In the Middle States, Presbyterians were 
numerous. In Virginia, the Church of England was supported 
by legislative authority, and it was favored, though not estab- 
lished by law, in New York. In Pennsylvania, there was 
freedom in religion, although the Quakers " still swayed legis- 
lation and public opinion." Generally in the colonies the 
people were industrious and prosperous, but commonly frugal 
and plain in their style of living. AVhile they acknowledged 
the authority of king and Parliament, they felt that they had 
brought with them the rights of Englishmen. They objected 
to the laws which sought to compel them to trade with the 
mother country exclusively. Conflicts with the Indians had 
made leagues a necessity. One of these was formed at Albany 
in 1754. Benjamin Franklin was one of the most conspicuous 
of the delegates who attended. There was a deepening sense 
of a common interest, and the people were beginning to feel 
that they were really one. 

Growing Disaifection. — At the close of the French War, Eng- 
land, in order to replenish her treasury, levied additional taxes 
upon the American colonies. The writs of assistance in Massa- 
chusetts authorized custom-house officers to search houses for 
goods which had been smuggled in violation of the laws of 
trade (1761). In the legal resistance to this measure, James 
Otis, a Boston patriot, uttered the sentence which afterwards 
became a watchword : " Taxation without representation is 
tyranny." The indignation of the colonies, however, was 
further aroused by the Stamp Act (1765), which was a form 
of taxation requiring the use of stamped paper for legal and 
other documents. In Virginia, Patrick Henry, an impas- 
sioned orator, boldly denounced the odious measure. A con- 
gress, representing nine colonies, met in New York in 1765, 



454 WAR OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE 

and called for the repeal of the Stamp Act, declaring against ■ 
the importation of English goods until the repeal should be 
granted. The American people were aroused. Political topics 
engrossed attention. 

In the House of Commons, William Pitt praised the spirit 
shown by the colonies. Parliament, however, added to the 
popular discontent by compelling the colonies to support the 
troops quartered on them, and by levying new duties for 
the salaries of officers. A petition of remonstrance was sent 
to the King, who replied by ordering four regiments of troops 
to Boston. There was bloodshed in a quarrel in the street 
between the populace and the soldiers in 1770. This was 
called the Boston Massacre. An influential leader of the popu- 
lar party in Boston was Samuel Adams. Some of the taxes 
were repealed, but the tax on tea remained in force. A mob 
of young men, disguised as Indians, went on board three 
vessels in Boston Harbor, and threw their freight of tea over- 
board (1773). In general, the methods of resistance had been 
legal and orderly. AVhen the news of the destruction of the 
tea reached England, Parliament closed the port of Boston 
against all exports or imports, except food and fuel (1774). 
The courts, moreover, were given power to send persons charged 
with high crimes to England or to another colony for trial. To 
crown all. General Gage, the commander of the British troops, 
was made governor of Massachusetts. 

The First Continental Congress. — In order to produce concert 
of action, committees of correspondence between the several 
colonies were established. The First Continental Congress, com- 
posed of delegates from the colonies, was convened in Phila- 
delphia (1774). The remedies to which they resorted were 
addresses to the King and to the ]3eople of Great Britain ; an 
appeal for support to Canada ; and a resolve not to trade with 
Great Britain until there should be a redress of grievances. 

Concord and Bunker Hill. — The Legislature in Massachusetts, 
which Gage would not recognize, formed itself into the Pro- 
vincial Congress. The first armed collision took place at 



CONCORD AND BUNKER HILL 



455 



Concord (April 19), where a detachment of British troops was 
sent to destroy the military stores gathered by this body. On 
Lexington Green, the British troops fired on the militia, and 
killed seven men. Arriving at Concord, they encountered 
resistance. There the first shot was fired by America in the 
momentous struggle, — " the shot heard round the world." 
A number were killed on both sides, and the attacking force 
was harassed all the way 
on its return to Boston. 
The people everywhere 
rose in arms. Men flocked 
from their farms and work- 
shops to the camp which 
was formed near Boston. 
Israel Putnam, who had 
been an officer in the 
French War, left his plow 
in the field at his home in 
Connecticut, and rode to 
that place, a distance of 
sixty-eight miles, in one 
day. Stark from Kew 
Hampshire, and Greene 
from Rhode Island, soon 
arrived. 

The Second Continental Congress, in session at Philadelphia, 
assumed control of military operations in all the colonies. At 
the suggestion first made by John Adams of Massachusetts, 
Colonel George Washington of Virginia was unanimously ap- 
pointed commander-in-chief. His mingled courage and pru- 
dence, his lofty and unselfish patriotism, his admirable sobriety 
of judgment, and his rare power of self-control, connected as it 
was with a not less rare power of command, and with a firmness 
which no disaster could shake, made him one of the noblest 
of men. Before he reached Cambridge, where he assumed 
command of the gathering forces (July 3, 1775), he received 




Washington 



456 WAK OF AMERICAN IXDEPEXDENCE 

the news of the battle of Bunker Hill, in which the provincial- 
soldiers, under Putnam and Prescott, made a stand against the 
''regulars," as the British troops were called, and retreated 
only on the third assault, and when their ammunition had 
given out. Dr. Joseph AYarren, a leading Boston patriot, was 
slain in the battle. Before this time. Port Ticonderoga had 
been captured bv Ethan Allen, and cannon been sent from it 
to aid in the siege of Boston (1775). But an attack on Quebec 
by Arnold and ^Montgomery, who entered Canada by different 
routes, failed of its object. Before British reinforcements 
arrived, the American troo^os abandoned Canada. In the at- 
tack on Quebec, Montgomery fell, and Arnold was severely 
wounded (Dec. 31, 1775). 

Independence. — Only a brief sketch can here be given of the 
seven years' struggle of the United Colonies. On the 4th of 
July, 1776, the Declaration of Independence, which was drawn 
up in the main by Thomas Jefferson, and of which John 
Adams was the most eloquent advocate on the floor of Con- 
gress, passed that body. It was signed by the President, John 
Hancock, and fifty-live members. The colonies easily con- 
verted themselves into States, nearly all of them framing new 
constitutions. Thirteen Articles of Confederation made them 
into a league, under the name of the United States of America, 
each State retaining its sovereignty (1777). Pranklin, an old 
man, and respected in Europe as well as at home for his scien- 
tific attainments as well as for his sturdy sagacity, went to 
France as their envoy. Among the soldiers who came from 
Europe to join the Americans were La Fayette, a young 
French nobleman, who was inspired with a zeal for liberty, 
and was not without a thirst for fame, which, however, he 
desired to merit, — and Steuben, an officer trained under 
Frederick the Great. In Parliament, the Whig orators spoke 
out manfully for the American cause. The King hired German 
troops for the subjugation of its defenders. 
• The Events of the War. — The maneuvers of Washington 
forced Gage to evacuate Boston. The American general then 



EVENTS OF THE WAR 457 

undertook the defense of New York. The Bi;i.tish forces, to 
the number of thirty thousand, under General Howe, and Ad- 
miral Howe, his brother, were collected on Staten Island. The 
Americans were defeated in a battle on Long Island (Aug. 27, 
1776), and could not hold the city, which remained in the hands 
of the British to the end of the war. Washington withdrew 
his troops to White Plains. Fort Washington and Fort Lee 
were lost. The American commander, followed by Lord Corn- 
wallis, retreated slowly through New Jersey (1776). These 
were serious reverses, but by bold and successful attacks at 
Trenton and Princeton, the depressed spirits of the army and 
the country were revived. In the spring of 1777 Howe sought 
to capture Philadelphia, and landed his forces at the head of 
Chesapeake Bay. The Americans were defeated at Brandy- 
wine (Sept. 10) ; and Philadelphia, which had been the seat of 
Congress, was, like New York, in the possession of the British. 
Their policy was to isolate New England. To this end. Gen- 
eral Burgoyne, with a large army of French and Indians, came 
down from the north of Lake Champlain. A detachment of 
his forces was defeated by Stark at Bennington, and Burgoyne 
himself was obliged to surrender, with six thousand men, to 
Gates, at Saratoga (Oct. 17). 

This event made a strong impression abroad. France recog- 
nized the independence of the United States, and entered into 
an alliance with them. This alliance was a turning-point in 
the struggle. Washington's army, ill clad and ill fed, suffered 
terribly in the winter of 1777-78 at Valley Forge; but he 
shared in their rough fare, and their discipline was much 
improved by the drill which they received there from Steuben. 
Sir Henry Clinton left Philadelphia in order that the British 
forces might be concentrated in New York. He was overtaken 
by Washington, and the battle of Monmouth took place, which 
was, on the whole, a success for the Americans. The design 
of the British to separate New England from the rest of the 
States had failed. Washington was again at White Plains. 
The British now began operations in the Southern States. 



458 WAR OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE 

Among the occurrences in tliis period of the war were the- ! 
massacre of the settlements in the valley, of the Wyoming, in 
Pennsylvania, by the Indian auxiliaries of the British; the 
surrender of Savannah, and with it Georgia and Charleston, 
by the Americans ; the gallant storming of Stony Point, on 
the Hudson, by Wayne (July 15, 1779), and a brilliant naval 
victory of Paul Jones in a desperate engagement with two 
British frigates near the northeastern coast of England (Sep- 
tember, 1779). The American partisan leaders, Marion, 
Sumter, and Pickens, carried forward an irregular but harass- 
ing warfare in South Carolina. At Camden, Gates was de- 
feated by Cornwallis ; and Baron de Kalb, a brave Prench 
officer of German extraction, in the American service, fell 
(Aug. 16, 1780). In this year (1780) Benedict Arnold's treason 
was detected; and Major Andre, a British officer through 
whom Arnold had made arrangements for giving up the for- 
tress of West Point to the enemy, was taken captive, and 
executed as a spy. In the next year General Nathanael 
Greene conducted military operations in Georgia and the 
Carolinas with much skill, and succeeded in pressing the army 
of Lord Cornwallis into the peninsula formed by the York and 
James rivers in Virginia. Thither the French fleet sailed 
under Count Eochambeau ; and Washington, by forced marches, 
was enabled to join with the French in surrounding the British 
works at Yorktown. On the day that Clinton left New York, 
at the head of his forces, to unite Avith Cornwallis, that officer 
with his entire army of seven thousand men surrendered to 
Washington (1781). 

This blow was fatal to the British cause. The independence 
of the United States was recognized by Holland, Sweden, 
Denmark, Spain, and Russia (1782). The war had been pro- 
longed by the personal obstinacy of George III., against the 
wishes of his minister. Lord North. The surrender of Corn- 
wallis made it plain that further effort to conquer America was 
hopeless. By the treaty of peace, signed at Paris and Ver- 
sailles (1783), England recognized the independence of her 



THE CONSTITUTION 459 

former colonies. Wasliington bade farewell to his army, laid 
down his commission, and retired to his farm at Monnt Vernon. 

America at the Close of the War. — Congress during the war 
had issued paper money to the amount of twenty millions 
of dollars. It had no power to lay taxes, or to compel the 
States to pay their several portions of the public indebted- 
ness. The States themselves were poor, and largely in debt. 
They surrendered, however, their unoccupied public lands to 
the United States. In 1787 Congress made one territory of 
the district northwest of the Ohio River, which Virginia had 
ceded, and, by an ordinance, excluded slavery from it for ever. 

The Constitution. — The lack of one system of law for the 
different States in reference to duties on imports, and on vari- 
ous other matters of common concern, and disorders springing 
up in different places, inspired an anxious desire for a stronger 
central government. A convention, over which Washington 
presided, met in Philadelphia , in 1787, and formed the new 
Constitution. Hamilton of New York and Madison of Vir- 
ginia were leading members. There was much opposition to 
the new plan of government which they agreed upon, but it 
was finally adopted by all the States. It supplied the defects 
of the old confederation by uniting national with federal ele- 
ments. To the Senate, made up of two delegates from each 
State, it added a House of Eepresentatives, in which the 
number of members from each State was made proportionate 
to the population. It put the general government, within the 
limit of its defined functions, into a direct relation to the 
citizens, and gave to it judicial and executive departments to 
carry out and enforce its legislation. It committed to the 
central authority the management of foreign affairs, and va- 
rious other powers necessary for the preservation of peace and 
unity in the land, and for the securing of the common weal of 
the whole country. Washington was unanimously chosen as 
the first president of the Republic, and John Adams was 
chosen vice president. The first Congress under the new gov- 
ernment met in New York on March 4, 1789. 



CHAPTER LXVI 

LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND RELIGION 

France. — The literature of France, in the age of Louis 
XIV., was classical in its spirit. The French Academy, 
founded by Richelieu, undertook to regulate and improve the 
French language. The drama flourished. Corneille (160G- 
1684) is called the father of French tragedy ; Racine (1639- 
1699) was also a dramatist of distinction ; Moliere was a 
master in comedy (1622-1673). La Fontaine (1621-1695) is 
celebrated for his fables in verse, and Boileau (1636-1711), 
who was likened to the ancient Roman poet, Horace, was called 
the Horace of France. Bossuet (1627-1704) was an eloquent 
preacher and a writer of history. La Rochefoucauld wrote 
maxims, while in the domain of philosophy, La Bruyere and 
Malebranche were authors of merit. Fenelon (1651-1715) 
wrote on religious topics and on education. Montesquieu 
(1689-1755), who wrote The Spirit of Laics, — a work just and 
humane in its tone, and full of inspiring views on history 
and government, — is one of the founders of modern polit- 
ical science. Voltaire (1694-1778^, whose creed was deism, 
was the embodiment of the critical and skeptical spirit of 
the age. Though he clung to the belief in a personal God, 
he was a scoffer at all beliefs which imply revelation. He 
was a playwright, poet, historian, critic, and brilliant conver- 
sationalist, and the most popular writer of his age. Jean 
Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), while a deist in creed, had in 
him a vein of sentiment which profoundly interested multi- 
tudes of readers of both sexes. In his Social Contract, he 
maintained that government grows out of a contract of indi- 

460 



GERMANY; ITALY; ENGLAND 



461 



viduals with one another, all of tliem being, in the state of 
nature, free and independent. 

Germany. — In Germany, a great name in philosophy is 
that of Leibnitz (1646-1716). Klopstock (1724-1803) excelled 
the other German poets of his day. A new era in German let- 
ters and criticism was 
opened by Lessing 
(1729-1781), who was 
a critic of admirable 
insight, and a poet, 
who has exerted a 
wide-spread influence. 

Italy. — In Italy, 
Yico (1668-1744) 
marked an epoch in 
the scientific treat- 
ment of history and 
mythology. Florence 
once more became a 
seat of learning. Bec- 
caria (1738-1794) 
introduced more hu- 
mane views in crimi- 
nal jurisprudence. 
Yolta (1745-1827), an 
electrician, constructed the instrument called the voltaic pile. 

England. — In England, after the Eestoration, the French 
influence in literature was strong. The drama declined, 
partly because the Puritans opposed it, and partly on ac- 
count of the rage for indecency which infected the dramatic 
writers. The Pilgrim^s Progress, of Bunyan (1628-1688), is 
the most popular work of that age. Prior to the age of Queen 
Anne, Dry den (1631-1700) is the princixaal poet of the period. 
In philosophy, John Locke (1632-1704) wrote his celebrated 
Essay concerning Human Understanding. Berkeley (1684-1753) 
advocated with rare genius the philosophical system known as 




462 



LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND RELIGION 



idealism, and defended Christian theism. Hume (1711-1776), 
was a skeptical writer of great acuteness. One of the greatest 
names in philosophy and theology is that of Bishop Joseph 

Butler (1692-1752), who 
wrote on the analogy be- 
tween the Christian re- 
ligion and what we know 
of the constitution and 
course of nature. Sir 
Isaac Newton (1642- 
1727) discovered the uni- 
versality of the law of 
gravitation, and made 
many discoveries in 
mechanics and optics. 
James Watt (1736-1819), 
a Scotchman, made radi- 
cal improvements in the 
steam engine, and Rich- 
ard Arkwright (1732- 
1792) invented the spin- 
ning jenny. ' In Queen 
Anne's reign, Pope (1688-1744), with his smooth versification 
and bright wit, is the principal figure among the poets, while 
Addison (1672-1719) and Steele (1676-1719) were the most 
distinguished essayists. Eichardson (1689-1761) and Field- 
ing (1707-1757) were among the earliest of English novel- 
ists, while Defoe (1661-1731) and Swift (1667-1774) were the 
authors of many powerful prose writings, one of the works 
of the former being Robinson Crusoe. Cxoldsmith (1728-1774) 
wrote poetry which charms from its very simplicity. Gray 
(1716-1771) is celebrated as the author of the Elegy in a 
Country Churchyard. Three great historians of the century 
are Hume, Robertson, and Gibbon. Gibbon's Decline and Fcdl 
of the Roman Empire is a monument of masterly ability and 
vast research. In 1776, Adam Smith, a Scotchman, published 




NE\rTON 



AMEKICA 



463 



The Wealth of Nations, the first complete system of political 
economy. 

America The most notable American writers before the 

War of Independence 



,f"/ 




were Jonathan Edwards 
(1703-1758), a great met- 
aphysical genius, and the 
founder of a school of 
theology; and Benjamin 
Tranklin (1706-1790), 
whose writings, in ex- 
cellent English, related 
mainly to ethical and 
economical topics. As the 
Eevolution approached, 
there sprang up authors 
of ability on the politi- 
cal questions of the day. 
The Federalist, written 

after the war, by Hamil- franklin 

ton, Madison, and Jay, 

in favor of the ^oroposed Constitution, is a work of high merit, 
as regards both matter and style. 





PERIOD IV» — THE EKA OE THE ERENOH REVOLUTION . 

(1789-1815) 

CHAPTER LXVII 

INTRODUCTION 

Character and Causes of the Revolution. — The Trench Revo- 
lution was a tremendous upheaval of society which brought 
with it the abolition of feudalism and monarchy, and the 
securing of an equality of xDolitical rights. Its effects were 
felt in all the civilized nations of the world. As a conse- 
quence the modern state was substituted for the mediaeval 
state. One of the principal causes that led to the Revolution 
was the hostility felt by the lower classes towards the king, 
the nobles, and the clergy. The nobles and the clergy had in 
their hands nearly two thirds of the land of Fraiice. The nobles 
preferred the gaieties of Paris to a residence on their estates. 
The clergy held an immense amount of land, and derived a 
vast income from tithes and other sources. Manufactures and 
trade had become fettered by oppressive monopolies. The 
reign of Louis XIV. left the higher orders in the exercise of 
numberless complicated privileges of local rule and taxation 
which laid on the necks of the people a yoke too heavy to be 
borne. The sale of political and military offices, and the gen- 
eral corruption in the administration of government, destroyed 
all respect for the throne. The debauchery of Louis XV., and 
his feeble foreign policy, tended to destroy what reverence for 
royalty was left. In the meantime, the current of thought 
was in a revolutionary direction. The example of America 
was before the eyes of the people, with its Revolution and its 
Declaration of Independence. The distress of the nation be- 
came greater and greater. ''The bark of trees was the daily 
food of hundreds of thousands." The public debt had attained 
immense proportions, and the government had become virtu- 
ally bankrupt. 

464 



CHAPTER LXVIII 

THE STATES GENERAL ; THE NATIONAL AND LEGISLATIVE 
ASSEMBLIES ; WAR WITH AUSTRIA AND PRUSSIA ; TRIAL 
AND EXECUTION OF THE KING (1789-1793) 

Louis XVI. (1774-92); the Queen Louis Xyi.,who differed 

from Ms two predecessors in being morally pure and benevo- 
lent in his feelings, was of a dull mind, and void of energy. 
He had married Marie Antoinette, the vivacious and charming 
daughter of the Empress Maria Theresa. She was gay and 
impulsive, and by many persons in high station she was re- 
garded with dislike, and was unjustly accused of faults w^orse 
than mere indiscretion. An unprincipled woman, the Countess 
Lamotte, made false assertions connected with a diamond neck- 
lace, which it was alleged the Cardinal de Eohan was to pur- 
chase for the queen, and the unfortunate woman became the 
victim of gross defamation (1785). 

To the States General. — Turgot (1774) was summoned by 
the King to be minister of marine and finance. He was 
a statesman of remarkable integrity and insight. He set 
to work to reduce the enormous public expenditures, and to 
introduce a system of local self-government. He aroused the 
opposition of the nobles and clergy, and the King weakly 
yielded to the demand for his dismissal. ISTecker, a Gene- 
van banker of far less financial ability (1776-1781), suc- 
ceeded him. His movements in the direction of economy 
provoked such hatred that he was compelled to withdraw. 
Affairs were at length brought to such a pass that the King 
called together (1787) an Assembly of Notables to get their ad- 
vice, but this body afforded no relief. Finally, it was resolved 
to summon the States General, who had not met since 1614. 

465 



466 THE STATES GENERAL 

To this measure the incompetence and selfishness of the ruling , 
classes had inevitably led. 

The Triumph of the Third Estate. — The States General met 
at Versailles, May 5, 1789. The clergy numbered three hun- 
dred, the nobles three hundred, and the " third estate " — 
whose plain black dress was in contrast with the more showy 
costume of the higher orders — numbered six hundred. The 
third estate at length organized separately. Among the 
members was Mirabeau, a man of great talents and of com- 
manding eloquence. They declared themselves to be the 
National Assembly ; and they persisted, against the King's 
will, in sitting apart until, at his request, the other orders gave 
way and joined them. It was resolved not to adjourn until 
the nation should be put in possession of its ancient rights. 
The attempts of Louis to dissolve the assembly were firmly 
resisted by the third estate, which was joined, among others, 
by Talleyrand, Bishop of Autun, and, of the nobility, by the 
rich, ambitious, and unprincipled Duke of Orleans, The King 
again yielded, and advised the nobles and clergy to remain. 

Destruction of the Bastile ; Emigration of Nobles. — The aris- 
tocratic party, distrusting the guard of the King, procured the 
substitution for it of German and Swiss troops. Popular ex- 
citement was roused, and a Parisian mob captured the Bastile 
— the grim old prison where political offenders had been im- 
mured — and razed it to the ground. The mob wore cockades 
on their hats which became the badges of the Revolution. 
The tricolor — red, white, and blue — was adopted for the flag. 
La Fayette was made commander of the militia at Paris. The 
nobles began an emigration to foreign countries. The revolu- 
tionary party soon came to suspect that the King and the 
court w^ere plotting with their absent supporters. Municipal 
guards were formed in various towns by the party of prog- 
ress. There were risings of peasantry in several districts and 
individuals were massacred in Paris. 

The New Constitution ; Assignats. — After the pattern of the 
American Declaration of Independence, the National Assembly 



THE MOB AT VERSAILLES 467 

passed a Declaration of Eights. In an outburst of enthusi- 
astic self-renunciation, many of the nobles gave up their 
feudal rights and privileges. The clergy relinquished their 
tithes ; all citizens were made eligible to all offices, civil and 
military. The new constitution provided for one legislative 
chamber, and a limited, constitutional monarchy, such as 
La Fayette and moderate republicans desired. Notes called 
Assignats were issued as a currency for which the public 
lands were to be the security. 

The Mob at Versailles. — The delay of the King to proclaim 
the constitution, the call of a regiment of troops to Versailles, 
imprudent sx^eeches and songs at a court banquet, stirred up 
the Parisian mob, who ascribed the scarcity of food to the 
absence of the King from Paris. A countless throng, made 
up largely of coarse women, went out to Versailles, intruded 
into the legislative chamber, and at night (Oct. 5) made 
their way into the palace, over the bodies of the guards. 
The royal family were rescued by La Fayette and the Na- 
tional G-uard. The next day they were forced to go to Paris, 
attended by this wild and hungry retinue, and took up their 
abode in the palace of the Tuileries. To Paris, also, the 
National Assembly transferred itself. More and more, Paris 
gained control. 

The Assembly proceeded to extinguish the independence of 
the clergy and«to confiscate the property of the Church. Mon- 
astic orders were abolished; religious freedom and freedom 
of the press were decreed ; the equality of all citizens was 
ordained, and hereditary nobility, with titles and coats-of-arms, 
were swept away. A uniform judicial system was instituted, 
with jury trials in criminal cases. Clubs were organized for 
democratic agitations, which were named, from the places 
where they met, Jacobins and Cordeliers. The Jacobins 
aimed at the utter destruction of the old institutions. Danton 
and Camille Desmoulins were leaders of the Cordeliers. La 
Fayette and the other moderate monarchists had a club of 
their own. 



468 THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY 

Fete of the Federation. — For a time the skies appeared- 
bright. On the 14th of July, 1790, a great Federative Com- 
memoration, or festival of civic fraternity, was held on the 
Champs de Mars in Paris. Talleyrand, at the head of three 
hundred priests clad in white, with tricolor sashes, officiated 
at an altar in the midst of the arena. First, La Fayette as 
President of the National Guard, then the President of the 
Assembly, and last the King, took an oath before the half- 
million of spectators to uphold the constitution. Then the 
Queen, partaking in the common enthusiasm, held up the 
Dauphin in her arms, and pledged his future obedience to 
the oath. There was unbounded joy at what w\as supposed 
to be a new millennial era of political freedom and brother- 
hood. The grand festival awakened sympathy and hope in 
all the countries of Europe. 

Flight of the King. — The hope of unity and political bliss, 
which exalted all minds to a high pitch of emotion, proved, 
before long, to be an illusive dream. The King was not ready 
to confirm the ordinance respecting priests, which made them 
civil officers; nor was he ready to declare the plotting emi- 
grant nobles abroad traitors. Mirabeau, who had enlisted in 
behalf of the King in a resistance to further measures for the 
reduction of regal authority, and in behalf of a constitutional 
monarchy, in which the legislative, judicial, and executive func- 
tions should be kept apart, suddenly died (April 2, 1791), at 
the age of forty-two. His death, caused partly by mental over- 
work, and partly by dissolute habits, deprived the conservative 
republicans and the court of their ablest defender. No one 
like him was left to stem the current of revolutionary passion, 
which threatened to burst through all barriers. The Paris sec- 
tions became more and more violent. . They hindered a pro- 
posed journey of Louis to St. Cloud. This determined him, 
against the urgent washes of the Queen, to escape with his 
family, to the army ; but the fugitives were stopped in their 
flight, and brought back in custody to Paris. This unwise and 
abortive proceeding of the King, coupled with his formal annul- 



THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY 469 

ling of all tliat he had done in the two years previous, had for 
its natural consequence his suspension from office. An insur- 
rection of the mob, to put an end to the monarchy, was sup- 
pressed by La Fayette. At the end of September, Louis swore 
to the revised constitution, and was restored to the throne. 
The Assembly then dissolved, to give ]3lace to another, which 
should complete the new political creation by needful legisla- 
tion : hence it was called the Legislative Assembly. 

The Legislative Assembly (October, 1791-September, 1792). — 
This Assembly was composed of seven hundred and forty -five 
members, mostly young men. Unfortunately, the National 
Convention, by a self-denying ordinance, had voted to exclude 
themselves from the new body, which thus lacked the benefit 
of their knowledge and experience. On the right , of the 
Assembly sat the royalists, and the Feuillants — the different 
classes of supporters of constitutional monarchy. On the left 
were the majority, vi^hich steadily increased in numbers, and 
embraced the Girondists, or moderate republicans, and the 
Mountain (so called from their higher seats in the hall) com- 
j)rising the most decided democrats or radicals. 

The Parisian Populace. — Prominent Jacobin leaders were 
Eobespierre and Marat. These and their followers denounced 
as aristocrats all classes above the common level. The Giron- 
dists separated from the violent extremists after the fall of 
the King. Enactments of the Assembly against priests who 
refused to take the oath of allegiance to the new constitution, 
and against the emigrants, who were trying to stir up the 
powers of Europe against the French government in its new 
form, were vetoed by the King. There was no real union 
between the King and the Assembly. A mob burst into the 
Tuileries and put a Jacobin cap on the King's head, but he re- 
mained calm and steadfast in his refusal to assent to the decrees. 

The Condition of Germany. — Germany now consisted of a 
multitude of states of which Austria and Prussia were the 
chief. The Empire was one body only in theory. In Prussia 
Frederick William IL (1786-1797) had no feeling so strong as 



470 WAE WITH AUSTRIA AND PRUSSIA 

that of hostility to Austria. The political life of Germany had 
become stagnant and corrupt. The nation was almost inca- 
pable of vigorous and united action. The Diet had little to do 
and did nothing. Eeforms of Joseph II. in Austria had pro- 
duced a ferment. Leopold II. (1790-1792) was succeeded by 
Francis II., a sickly and selfish ruler who sanctioned a reac- 
tionary policy which was inspired by the dread of change. 
ThugLit, the minister of Francis, regarded the people as - so 
many millions "to be taxed, to be drilled, to be kept down by 
the police." 

War with Austria and Prussia. — In France, the efforts of the 
constitutionalists to save the throne were balked by the exiles 
and the foreign governments. This fact should not be forgot- 
ten when we are seeking to explain the origin of many of the 
atrocities which marked the later stages of the Revolution. 
Frederick William II. of Prussia and the Emperor Leopold II. 
called on the European powers to join them in aiding Louis 
XVI. to establish a right sort of government. This movement 
brought a Girondist ministry into power in France, and on 
April 20, 1792, Louis was compelled to go to the Assembly 
and propose a declaration of war against Austria. Prussia 
joined its rival, Austria, in warfare against France. The 
three French armies under Pochambeau, La Fayette, and 
Luckner at first met with reverses. Revolutionary excitement 
in Paris was at its height. An armed throng again attacked 
the Tuileries. The King took refuge in the hall of the Assem- 
bly. The Swiss guards were successfully fighting the assail- 
ants, when they received an order from him to cease firing. 
The result was that they were slaughtered without mercy. 
The Assembly voted to suspend the exercise of the King's 
authority, to put him and his family under surveillance, to 
hand over the young prince to the custody of a person charged 
with his education, and to call a national convention to draw 
up a constitution. The royal family were given into the hands 
of the Paris commune, and lodged as prisoners, in apartments 
scantily furnished, in the castle called the Temple. 



PEOGRESS OF THE REVOLUTION 471 

Massacres of September. — The blundering of the royalists, 
their intrigues, and the pressure of the coalition of foreign 
enemies, had thrown the power into the hands of the Jacobins. 
The city council, and Danton, the Minister of Justice, were 
really supreme, although the Girondists had a share in the 
new ministry. La Fayette was accused and proscribed, and 
fled from the country. He was captured by the Austrians, 
and kept in prison at Olmutz until 1796. The news of the 
advance of the allies led to the " massacres of September," 
when the prisons in Paris, which had been filled with priests 
and laymen arrested on charges of complicity with the enemies 
of liberty, were entered by rufflans acting under the orders of 
Danton and the commune's Committee of Surveillance, and, 
after " a burlesque trial " before an armed jury, were murdered. 
In Versailles, Lyons, Orleans, and other towns, there were like 
massacres. The victims of these massacres numbered about 
three thousand. 

Victories of France. — In the meantime the war had come to 
be looked upon as a war of self-defense. Volunteers flocked 
to the field. The victories of the French were followed by 
the conquest of the Austrian jSTetherlands (November, 1792). 
Savoy and Nice were annexed to France. The Scheldt was de- 
clared free and open to commerce, and Antwerp was made an 
open port. 

Trial and Execution of the King The National Convention 

was made up entirely of republic's. The monarchy was 
abolished, and France was declared a republic. The Girondists 
had at first the preponderance in numbers ; but the Jacobins, 
led by such as Kobespierre, Danton, Marat, the Duke of Or- 
leans (who called himself Philip Egalite), and St. Just (once a 
marquis), were supported by the clubs and the city council, 
and by the savage populace of the sections, — the sans culottes. 
The guillotine — a machine for beheading, which Guillotin, a 
physician, did not invent, but recommended for use — was the 
instrument on which the fanatical revolutionists placed most of 
their reliance for the extirpation of " aristocracy." The energy 



472 



EXECUTION OF THE KING 



of the Jacobins, aided by the general dread of a restoration 
of the royalists to power, and by the fury of the Paris populace, 
proved too strong for the more moderate party to withstand. 
The King, designated as Louis Capet, was arraigned before the 
Assembly, tried, and condemned to death. There were seven 
hundred and twenty -one votes : his death was decreed by a 
majority of one (Jan. 15, 1793). Through all the terrible 
scenes of the trial, the parting with his wife and children, and 
the execution (Jan. 21), Louis manifested a serene temper. 








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Cathedkal or ISIotre Dame 



CHAPTER LXIX 

POLITICS IN ENGLAND ; THE JACOBIN REVOLUTION ; REIGN 
OF TERROR IN FRANCE (JAN. 21, 1793 -JULY 27, 1794) 

The First Coalition. — The execution of the King was the 
signal for the union of tlie European powers against Erance. 
Tlie intention of the revolutionary party to propagate their 
system in other countries afforded one excuse for this inter- 
ference. The Convention (Nov. 19, 1792) had offered their 
assistance to peoples wishing to throw off the existing govern- 
ments. The main ground and cement of the coalition was the 
dread which the governments felt of revolutionary movements 
among their own subjects, from their sympathy with the new 
institutions in France. 

Politics in England. — The Eevolution of 1688 had given 
power to a group of Whig families. To shake off this con- 
trol was a constant aim of George III. In 1783 William Pitt, 
the younger, was made prime minister when he was only 
twenty-five years old. In 1788 the King had been attacked 
with insanity ; and while he was thus afflicted, George, Prince 
of Wales, who was unpopular on account of his loose morals, 
ruled as regent. Charles James Eox, a man of noble talents, 
but notoriously irregular in his habits, was the leader of the 
liberal party. The theories advocated by the defenders of the 
Erench Eevolution were set forth in an offensive form in Eng- 
land by Thomas Paine. The great philosophical statesman, 
Edmund Burke, who had defended the cause of freedom in 
the American Eevolution, published in 1790 his Reflections on 
the French Revolution. In this work he denounced the politi- 
cal notions of the Erench school, and separated himself from 

473 



474 THE JACOBIN REVOLUTION 

his party, publicly breaking friendship with Fox. Pitt was 
driven into war by the prevailing sentiment, which was roused 
by the news of the death of Louis. For the next twenty years 
Great Britain, by her strength on land and sea, and in particu- 
lar by her wealth, proved herself a powerful and a most per- 
severing antagonist of France. Pitt, though a Tory minister, 
was supported in the long struggle in Europe by a majority of 
AYhigs. 

Fall of the Girondists. — The advance of the allied armies 
increased the violence and strengthened the hands of the 
Jacobins. This and other circumstances, such as a royalist 
revolt in the west, brought new force to this aggressive party, 
and ruin to the Girondists. Danton, who understood that auda- 
city was the secret of success, procured the appointment by the 
Convention of a Committee of Public Safety (April 6, 1793), 
which was to exercise the most frightful dictatorship known in 
history. A Committee of General Security was put in charge 
of the police of the whole country. The commune of Paris co- 
operated in the energetic efforts of the Jacobin leaders to col- 
lect recruits and to strengthen the military force. The three 
chiefs were Danton, Marat, and Robespierre. There was a mor- 
tal struggle between the advocates of order and the apostles of 
anarchy. The fate of the moderates and Girondists was sealed 
by a great insurrection in Paris, and an invasion of the Conven- 
tion by an armed force. The violent party had at their back 
eighty thousand National Guards, who hemmed in the Conven- 
tion. Twenty-two Girondist leaders were placed under arrest. 
Their party fell. The boldest and most reckless faction, which 
had the Paris commune behind it, triumphed. 

The Jacobin Revolution — Danton and the other revolutionary 
leaders showed a tremendous energy in their attack on both 
domestic and foreign enemies. Outside of Paris there were 
formidable risings against the Jacobin rule. Thus began the 
war of La Vendee, in which the people of that region were 
subdued after protracted conflict and immense shiughter. The 
Jacobins stirred up the people throughout France and formed 



THE EEIGN OF TERROR 475 

revolutionary committees. The dominion of the Jacobins was 
really a second Revolution. In Paris, the revolutionary tribu- 
nal was filling the prisons with the suspected, and was sending 
daily its wagon-loads of victims to the guillotine. A new con- 
stitution of an extreme democratic type, was offered to the 
acceptance of the people. 

Military Successes of France. — The French army was all the 
while growing stronger, and was becoming gradually fired with 
patriotic ardor. At Paris, Carnot's efficient management of 
military affairs gave France an advantage over her foes. The 
French troops were successful against the English at Dunkirk 
(1793), against the Austrians, and the Yendean insurgents. 
Toulon was in revolt, but was captured after a siege during 
which Napoleon Bonaparte, a young artillery officer, had dis- 
tinguished himself by pointing out the proper spot for plant- 
ing the batteries to drive away the English and Spanish fleets. 

Bonaparte. — Napoleon was born on the island of Corsica, 
Aug. 15, 1769, two months after Corsica became subject to the 
French. His family, on both sides, were Italians. Napoleon 
himself never became so fully master of the French tongue 
that he did not betray in his speech his foreign extraction. 
He was educated at the military school of Brienne (1779- 
1784), and then went to the military school at Paris. His 
principal studies were mathematics and history. He quickly 
made manifest his military talents, and seems first to have 
aspired to gain distinction and power, in this line, in Corsica. 
His connection was at first with the Jacobins, although he 
afterwards denied it. He had imbibed the ideas of the Eevo- 
lution, and saw that in the service of the leaders in the war 
there was opened to him a military career. He turned against 
his patriotic countryman, Paoli, when the latter sought to sepa- 
rate Corsica from France, at that time under the Jacobin rule. 

The Reign of Terror. — The Eeign of Terror had now estab- 
blished itself in France. The Committee of Public Safety 
wielded absolute power. Every man, woman, and child was 
called upon to take part in the defense of the country. The 



476 THE JACOBIN REVOLUTION 

property of all tlie " emigrants " and prisoners of state was 
seized. Whoever was suspected of being hostile to the estab- 
lished tyranny was thrown into prison. Even to be lukewarm 
in adhesion to it was a capital offense. Summary trials were 
followed by swift executions. The tenderness of youth and 
the venerableness of age were no protection. Day after day 
the stream of human blood continued to flow. A new calendar 
was ordained; Sept. 22, 1792, was the beginning of the year 
one. There was a new division of months ; in place of the 
week, each tenth day was made a holiday. The commune of 
Paris, followed by other cities, formally proclaimed atheism to 
be the truth. Fashions of dress, modes of speech, and man- 
ners were revolutionized. Every vestige of " aristocracy " was 
to be swept off the earth. A wild license was given to divorce 
and to profligacy. Paris was like a camp where young soldiers 
were drilled, weapons were forged, and lint and bandages made 
ready for the Avounded. There were seen, even in the hall of 
the Convention, throngs of coarse and fierce men, and of coarser 
and fiercer women, with their songs and wild outcries and 
gestures. The commune of Paris instituted an atheistic 
festival in the ancient cathedral of Notre Dame, where an 
actress was enthroned as Goddess of E-eason. There were 
priests and bishops who abjured the Christian faith, and 
there were others who adhered to it at the peril of their lives. 
The prisons, which were packed with all classes, were theaters 
of strange and thrilling scenes. In many cases, death, made 
familiar, ceased to terrify. Crowds escorted the batch of vic- 
tims carried on carts each day to the place of execution, and 
insulted them with their brutal shouts. The arrested Giron- 
dist deputies were executed. Some of the leaders of that party, 
including Poland, perished b}' suicide. Among the persons 
sent to the guillotine was Madame Roland ; also the infamous 
Duke of Orleans, who had intrigued to get himself raised to 
the throne. Marie Antoinette, her hair turned white in the 
tragic scenes through which she had passed, miserably clad, 
was dragged before the merciless tribunal. There she was in- 



EXECUTION OE THE QUEEN 477 

suited with foul accusations which, nobody believed. After the 
mockery of a trial, she was carried like a common criminal, in 
a cart, with her arms bound, to the place of execution (Oct. 16). 
Her dignity and serenity, her pallid countenance, and the sim- 
ple, pathetic words uttered by her at her arraignment, touched 
for the moment the hardened hearts of the brutalized spec- 
tators. Her sad fate has blinded many to the calamitous 
errors committed by her in the days of her power. 

The Jacobin Chiefs. — Of the three chiefs of the revolutionary 
tribunal, Marat was the most ferocious. He was assassinated 
by a young maiden, Charlotte Corday, who devoted herself to 
the task of ridding the world of such a monster. Danton was 
somewhat less bloodthirsty, and was himself brought to the 
guillotine by Eobespierre, who gained the ascendency among 
the Jacobins. When he became supreme, the atrocities became 
even more savage than before. The prisons were crowded with 
^^ suspects." Suicide and madness were of common occurrence. 
In the provinces there were scenes of horror like those enacted 
in Paris. Yet, at this time, abroad the armies of the republic 
were successful. The allies were driven out of Belgium 
(1794). 



478 



THE BONAPARTES 



rome, 
/■estphalia, 
860, 
f Wiirtemberg. 


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K 


5, Caroline, C, Je 

Joachim Murat, King of King of V 

Naples, shot 1815. d. ' 

m. Catharine o 

K General Beauharnais. 


Clotilda, d. of Victor Emanuel II. of Ital 
Napoleon Victor Jerome Fk 


1 

;. (2), 2, Napoleon I., 

1804-1814 ,n. 
(deposed, d. 1821). 

(1), m. (2), Josephine, (1), ) 


<eph, ;-t, Lucien, Maria Louisa, i 
Spain, Prince of Canino daughter of 
S44. d. 1840. Emperor 
Francis 11. 




aide, m. Charles, Lucien. Pierre. 
d. 1857. 


5 

3 

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-2 . 






CHAPTER LXX 

THE DIRECTORY; THE CAREER OF NAPOLEON TO THE 
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE EMPIRE (1794-1804) 

Fall of Robespierre A reaction set in against the cruelties 

of Jacobinism. The authority of Eobespierre began to wane, 
and at length the Assembly turned against him. He was 
arrested and finally guillotined. The Eeign of Terror was 
brought to an end. The revolutionary tribunal was broken 
down, and the moderates gained control of the Convention. 
The reaction was seen in the altered character of society and 
of manners. Paris was again alive with balls and other 
festive entertainments. Two fierce outbreakings of the mob 
were quelled, and the power of the Jacobins was finally 
crushed. 

Conquest of Holland : Prussia The armies of Prance were 

everywhere successful, and the Low Countries were now a de- 
pendency of the French Eepublic. The English and emigrants 
landed on the coast of Brittany, but were defeated. Spain 
concluded peace, ceding St. Domingo to the Prench Eepublic. 
The soldiers of Prance were fast becoming trained and their 
confidence rose with increasing success. 

Constitution of 1795 A third constitution was submitted by 

the Convention to the Prench nation. Executive power was 
given to a Directory of five persons. It was in general well re- 
ceived, but an insurrection of the royalist middle class in Paris 
(Oct. 4, 1795) threatened to disturb the peace of the nation, 
but was promptly put down by the resolute action of Bona- 
parte, to whom had been given the command of the troops of 
the city. -A new authority, the will of the army, was begin- 

479 



480 CAREER OF NAPOLEON 

ning plainly to show itself. What the people more and more, 
craved was internal tranquillity and order. 

Bonaparte in Italy. — Carnot planned an attack upon Austria, 
and splendid success attended the arms of Bonaparte in his 
Italian campaign. Bonaparte had married Josephine Beauhar- 
nais, the widow of a French general. By her former marriage 
she had had two children — Eugene, and Hortense, who mar- 
ried Louis Bonaparte. By a series of rapid moves, which 
enabled him to strike the enemy before they could combine 
their forces, Bonaparte gained several signal victories over the 
Austrians, one of the most bloody of which was at the bridge 
of Lodi. He crossed the Alps to meet the Archduke Charles 
of Austria, who had driven the other French armies out of his 
country. Bonaparte dictated the terms of the Peace of Campo 
Formio. He was at this time but twenty-seven years of age, 
and had already given proof of an astonishing military genius. 
Returning to Paris, he was received with acclamation, but he 
thought it politic to avoid publicity and to live quietly in his 
modest dwelling. During his absience, the royalist and reac- 
tionary faction had gained ground in the governing bodies, 
but by the help of the army, the reactionary deputies were 
arrested and banished, and the triumph of the republicans 
was made complete. This is known as the coup d'etat (Sept. 3, 
1797). 

The Egyptian Expedition. — The Directory fell in with Napo- 
leon's plan for getting control of the eastern Mediterranean, 
and striking at the possessions of Great Britain in India, by 
an expedition against Egypt. He defeated the Mamelukes in 
a great battle fought within sight of the Pyramids. At Abou- 
kir, however, the English naval force under Nelson destroyed 
the French fleet in the battle of the Nile. Bonaparte invaded 
Syria, but was prevented by the English fleet from getting a 
foothold on the coast. He subsequently vanquished the Turks 
at Aboukir. 

Reverses of France in Italy. — Here Bonaparte received infor- 
mation which led him to leave the army under the command 



THE NORTHERN ALLIANCE 481 

of Kleber, and himself to return to France. The European 
powers had once more taken up arms, and the management of 
the French armies by the government at Paris was unskillfuL 
Victories over the French were gained by the Archduke Charles, 
and by the Austrians and the Russian army. Almost all Italy 
was lost. Nothing but the victory of Massena over the Rus- 
sians at Zurich saved France itself from invasion. These 
reverses added to the unpopularity of the Directory. At this 
juncture ]SI"apoleon arrived in Paris and was greeted with enthu- 
siasm. By another coup d^etat — the revolution of 18th Bru- 
maire (Nov. 9, 1799) — Napoleon was made first magistrate, with 
the title of First Consul. He was thus enabled to take and 
to hold supreme power. He set on foot excellent financial 
reforms, and by mild and conservative measures renewed the 
prosperity of France. 

Marengo; Pease of Luneville Napoleon made overtures of 

peace to Austria, but they were not accepted. Thereupon he 
crossed the Alps in May, 1800, with a large army, and attacked 
the Austrians and gained a signal victory over them at Marengo 
(June 14). Moreau won a great victory at Hohenlinden over 
the Archduke John. In February, 1801, by the Peace of Lune- 
ville, Belgium and all territory west of the Ehine were secured 
to France. 

The Northern Alliance; the Peace of Amiens. — England now 
stood alone against France. Her navies were supreme, and 
had cax^tured most of the Dutch as well as French colonies. 
The French army in Egypt had been driven to capitulate on 
the condition that it should be transported in English vessels 
to France. Eussia and Sweden had concluded (1799) a de- 
fensive alliance of armed neutrality on the sea, to maintain 
the right of neutrals to trade with belligerents, and the doc- 
trine that the neutral ship protects its freight (not being muni- 
tions of war) against seizure. Prussia joined the Northern 
Alliance. Pitt had retired from office. He had accomplished 
the legislative union of England and Ireland, by which the 
separate Irish Parliament had ceased to exist (1800), but he 



482 CAREER OF NAPOLEON 

had encouraged the Irish Catholics to expect that they would 
be delivered from the restrictions which excluded them from 
the House of Commons and from many other offices. When 
the king refused to consent to the fulfillment of these expecta- 
tions, Pitt resigned (1801). England was tired of the war. 
Peace was concluded at Amiens (March, 1802). France was to 
retain all her conquests on the Continent. England surrendered 
to France and her allies all conquests except Trinidad and Cey- 
lon. Malta was to be given back by England to the Knights 
of Malta. A third great civil triumph of Napoleon, added to 
Luneville and Amiens, was the Concordat with the Pope. 

Reforms of Napoleon Napoleon now was free to give his 

attention to internal reforms in France. He called into his 
counsels the ablest men in all departments of knowledge. In 
the reconstruction of political and social order, his own clear 
perceptions and energy were everywhere seen. He brought 
back from the old institutions whatever was good and valu- 
able which the tempest of revolution had swept away. He 
reformed the judicial system. He caused to be framed the 
famous Code which bears his name, and which still forms 
the basis of law in several European countries. He reduced 
the power of the communes, and centralized the administra- 
tion of government by the system of prefects and sub-prefects. 
Through the Concordat, he renewed the connection of the Cath- 
olic Church of France with Rome, reserving, however, to the 
executive the nomination of archbishops and bishops, whom 
the government was to support, and guarding, in the spirit of 
the Galilean theory, the supremacy of the civil authority. 
Full toleration was secured for non-Catholics. Napoleon per- 
sonally participated in the religious ceremonies which attended 
the formal restoration of the old system of worship where the 
Goddess of Eeason had been enthroned with atheistic orgies. 
Education was organized by the establishment of the Univer- 
sity, the comprehensive name for the entire educational sys- 
tem of the country. All branches of technical instruction were 
carefully fostered. The devotees of science were encouraged 



REFORMS OF NAPOLEON 483 

with, an enlightened sympathy and liberal aid. A better or- 
ganization and discipline were brought into the army. 

Character of the Changes. — The changes made by Napoleon, 
while they secured the equality of all Frenchmen before the 
law, did nothing to rescue civil liberty, such as the republicans 
had aimed to secure. They were all in the direction of mon- 
archy. Distinctions, like the Legion of Honor, were invented ; 
titles were instituted ; a new aristocracy, made up of relics of 
the old noblesse and of fresh recruits, was created; Napoleon 
was declared to be consul for life, and the mechanism of the 
government was converted into a practical dictatorship. Un- 
sparing in his treatment of Jacobins, he aimed still to moderate 
the passions of party. His activity was seen in an excellent 
system of public works, such as canals and noble highways, 
in new towns, and in magnificent buildings which he erected 
in Paris. At the same time, he went as far as it was safe to 
go in bringing in monarchical manners and luxuries. He him- 
self adopted a regal way of living. He had no faith in democ- 
racy, and spoke with unaffected scorn of "ideology," or the 
theoretical statesmanship which based itself on ideas of " hu- 
man rights" in the matter of exercising government. The 
press was placed under stringent police regulation. Napo- 
leon's family began to contend with "Corsican shamelessuess " 
for high honors. A feud soon came to exist between them and 
the Beauharnais — the family of Josephine. It looked as if 
the principle of heredity had come back. 

Renewed War with England. — In 1803 the war was renewed 
with England. That Napoleon was resolved to dictate in Euro- 
pean affairs, as he was practical dictator in the French Ee- 
public, was plain. He controlled the republics dependent on 
France. He annexed Piedmont. He made the Spanish Bour- 
bons do his bidding. He intervened in Germany ; among other 
things, offending Austria by enlarging the bounds of Prussia. 
He exercised over the minor German states the influence of 
which Austria had been robbed. He complained of the stric- 
tures of the English press, and of the asylum granted in 



484 



CAREER OF NAPOLEON 



England to conspirators against his rule. He was angiy 
that Malta was not given up, which England refused to do 
on account of an aggrandizement of France not consistent 
with the Peace of Amiens. There were provocations on both 
sides, and war was inevitable. 

Plan of Invading England. — Xapoleon seized Hanover. He 
planned a great descent on England. He gathered a vast 
army near Boulogne, and constructed an immense flotilla for 
the transportation of it across the Channel. His design was 
to decoy away the British fleet, and then to concentrate enough 
ships of his own in the Channel to protect the passage of his 
forces. 




Cross of the Le<;iox of Hoxor 



CHAPTER LXXI 



THE EMPIRE OF NAPOLEON: TO THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN 

(1804-1812) 

The Empire (1804) Napoleorij exasperated by plots against 

his life, caused the young Duke d'Enghien to be seized in 
Baden, and shot after a hurried military examination, in which 
he was declared to be guilty of 
complicity in a plot of which 
he was really innocent. Of this 
act of Napoleon, it was said by 
Fouche, "It was worse than a 
crime : it was a blunder." Nev- 
ertheless, it opened the way for 
him to the imperial title and 
throne, he was proclaimed em- 
peror, and his election was rati- 
fied by popular vote. In imita- 
tion of Charlemagne, whom he 
affected to consider a French- 
man and a predecessor, he was 
crowned with splendid pomp by 
Pope Pius VII. in Notre Dame 
(Dec. 2, 1801). He surrounded 
himself with the emblems and ceremonies of royalty. He 
made his generals, eighteen in number, most of whom had 
sprung from the ranks, marshals. The republic of 1789 had 
now passed into an absolute military monarchy. 

Third Coalition against France (1805). — Pitt had come back 
to office in England, and he organized the third coalition of 

485 




486 EMPIRE OF NAPOLEON 

England (in union with Austria, Russia, and Sweden) for re-, 
storing the balance of power in Europe. In Prussia, however, 
Frederic William III. (1797-1840) clung to the policy of neu- 
trality, and was even bribed by the gift of Hanover. The 
attitude of Prussia was long the pivot on which the success of 
Napoleon's aggressions hung. Napoleon's plan for invading 
England was thwarted by the excessive caution or timidity of 
his admiral, Villeneuve. Nelson and his fleet were drawn 
away in pursuit of hin), but succeeded in returning to the 
channel in time to prevent the consummation of Napoleon's 
design. On the other hand, the allies marked out various lines 
of attack upon France. Napoleon, however, did not wait for 
them to unite. He suddenly broke up his camp, marched his 
splendid army across the Rhine, captured Ulm, and displayed 
a military strategy that was even more astonishing than that 
displayed in the campaign of Marengo. On the sea, however, 
at Trafalgar, Nelson achieved a grand victory over the French 
and Spanish fleets. The watchword sent from the flag-ship 
just before the encounter — '-'England expects every man to do 
his duty " — called forth shouts of enthusiasm from the decks 
of the British fleet. Nelson himself was struck by a bullet 
and died. His private life was not free from grave faults, but 
he was the greatest naval hero England has ever produced. 

Austerlitz : Confederation of the Rhine. — On land the career 
of Napoleon was triumphant. The grand army, with its sys- 
tem of corps and reserves, marched on Vienna, which it oc- 
cupied, and on December 2d, utterl}^ defeated the Russian 
army under Alexander at Austerlitz. The Peace of Pressburg 
followed, and the Confederation of the Rhine was formed, by 
which Bavaria, Baden, and a number of other states were 
united into a league of which Napoleon was the protector. 
Prussia formed an alliance with France, and England there- 
upon declared war against Prussia ; but Fox came into power 
in England in January, 1806, and Prussia discovered that 
Napoleon was negotiating for the surrender of Hanover to 
England. This crowning indignity moved Prussia to take up 



AUSTERLITZ; INVASION OF SPAIN 48T 

arms against France. The Prussian army was full of pride 
and hope, but its organization and method of warfare were 
antiquated, and its commander, the Duke of Brunswick, though 
brave, was superannuated. In two battles, Jena and Auerstadt, 
fought on the same day (Oct. 14, 1806), the Prussian forces 
were routed and Napoleon entered Berlin. He next turned 
his attention toward Eussia and fought a terrible battle at 
Eylau (Feb. 7 and 8, 1807), with indecisive result. At Fried- 
land (June 14) he routed the Pussian army, and compelled his 
enemies to sue for peace at Tilsit. The provisions of the 
treaty there concluded were such as thoroughly to divide and 
disable Germany, and to take away the last obstacle to his con- 
trol within its borders. 

The Power of Napoleon. — No ruler since Charlemagne had 
held such power as was now wielded by Napoleon. He was 
the leader of mighty armies, with no military rival to endanger 
his supremacy. He did not seem to anticipate, however, the 
awakening of nationality and patriotism in the countries which 
he had conquered. Meanwhile, too, he was exhausting the 
military resources of France. He, nevertheless, showed a pre- 
sumptuous confidence and an arrogant spirit of domination. 
He undertook to cut off trade between the entire Continent 
and England. This measure inflicted serious injury on France, 
and all the countries which profited by English trade. 

Invasion of Spain At Tilsit, the Czar Alexander had 

promised to declare war against Great Britain. He accord- 
ingly did so, and Napoleon, thereupon, invaded the Spanish 
peninsula under the pretense of guarding the coast against the 
English. He declared that the ruling house of Braganza had 
ceased to reign, and gave the crown of Spain to his brother 
Joseph, bestowing the throne of Naples on his marshal Murat. 
From Spain he hurried to Austria, where signs of an uprising 
had manifested themselves, and gained a signal victory at 
Wagram, which compelled Austria to cede more of her terri- 
tory. Pius VII. having refused to close his ports against 
England, Napoleon annexed the Papal States to the Empire, 











A^ I 



^ 



O 



o 









^§7 j; F 



REACTION AGAINST NAPOLEON 489 

arrested the Pontiff, and conveyed him to France. The Em- 
peror, being childless, obtained a divorce from Josephine, and 
married Maria Louisa, the daughter of Francis I. of Austria, 
in the hope of founding a dynasty on a sure basis. To the son, 
who was born of this marriage, he gave the sounding title of 
King of Eome. 

Reaction against Napoleon. — In Spain, during Napoleon's 
absence, AYellington in command of the English army gained 
many advantages over Massena, who tried in vain to capture 
Wellington's fortified position. This campaign produced a 
strong moral effect in other parts of Europe. A new spirit 
of patriotism was stirring the hearts of the German people. 
Stein, a great patriotic minister, reorganized the Prussian ad- 
ministration and reconstructed the army. The quarrel of 
Napoleon with the Pope, and the indignities suffered by the 
Pontiff, added to the discontent which the Emperor's commer- 
cial policy provoked. A new Germany was slowly waking to 
life, and collecting its energies for the combat for freedom. 



CHAPTER LXXII 

THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN (1812); FALL OF NAPOLEON; 
WATERLOO; ABDICATION OF NAPOLEON (1814-15) 

The Russian Campaign. — The circumstances narrated above 
did not prevent Napoleon from the fatal mistake of invading 
Russia. The Czar would not enforce the commercial restric- 
tions. Napoleon refused to promise not to restore the kingdom 
of Poland. There were various other causes of mutual jeal- 
ousy and coolness. Sweden, under Bernadotte, which had 
been forced to declare war, now joined Russia. Austria and 
Prussia, in their state of practical vassalage, had to furnish 
military help to Napoleon. In June, 1812, when he crossed 
the Niemen, he had brought together a force of five hundred 
and fifty thousand men. He had reenforcements from Poland, 
and might have had more had he not, from deference to Aus- 
tria and Prussia, refused to restore the Polish kingdom. The 
Russians retreated as he advanced. One Russian general de- 
clined a battle, and destroyed whatever places could afford an 
advantage to the invader. At length, another general took 
the command, and was compelled by the Russian feeling, 
against his will, to give battle. At Borodino, where there was 
immense slaughter on both sides, the Russians retired, but 
without disorder. When the French arrived at Moscow, they 
found an empty town, which was set on fire by order of 
the governor. The Czar refused to treat for peace. There 
was no alternative but to retreat (Oct. 19, 1812). The suf- 
ferings of the soldiers from cold and famine were terrible, and 
the Russians availed themselves of every opportunity to harass 
the retreating force. When it reached the ruins of Smolensk, 

490 



FALL OF NAPOLEON 491 

only forty thousand were left of more than a hundred thou- 
sand that had left Moscow. The army contmued to dwindle. 
At length, Napoleon left Murat in command, and hastened 
in disguise to Paris. The expedition cost the lives of not less 
than three hundred thousand men. This gigantic failure was 
due to the foiling by the Russians of Napoleon's habitual plan 
of forcing decisive battles by movements so rapid that his 
troops could subsist upon the country which they overran, and 
to the unexpected destruction of Moscow. 

The German War of Liberation; Leipsic. — During the first 
three months of 1813, North Germany rose in arms. Freder- 
ick William III. appealed to the people, and all men capable of 
bearing arms responded with alacrity. Russia, Prussia, Swe- 
den, and England united to curb the power of France. At 
Lutzen (May 2, 1813) and at Bautzen (May 20, 1813) Napoleon 
gained signal victories. In June, however, Wellington defeated 
the French at Vittoria, in Spain ; and though Napoleon was 
again victorious at Dresden (Aug. 27), his army was defeated 
and routed in a three days' battle at Leipsic (Oct. 16, 18, 
19). The allied armies numbered three hundred thousand, 
while the French force did not exceed one hundred and eighty 
thousand. The battle was really the decisive contest in the 
wars of Europe against Napoleon. From this defeat it was 
impossible for him to recover. 

Fall of Napoleon ; Elba. — The members of the Confederacy 
of the Ehine joined the allies. Holland rose in revolt, and 
drove out the French ofiicials. Even France was exhausted 
and full of discontent. Meantime Wellington defeated Soult 
in the Pyrenees, and invaded France from that side. Napoleon 
was bent on resistance, and by his superior skill outgeneraled 
the brave Prussian soldier but inexpert strategist, Bllicher, as 
well as the Austrian general (January and February, 1814). 
But the preponderance of numbers on the side of the allies was 
too great. Their bold decision to march on Paris secured their 
triumph. The city surrendered (March 30). Napoleon had 
lost his hold on the ruling bodies. The senate, through the in- 



492 NAPOLEON'S RETURN FROM ELBA 

fiiience of the astute Talleyrand, once his minister, declared 
that he and his family had forfeited the throne. At Fontaine- 
bleau, he signed his abdication in favor of his son (April 6), 
but this condition was rejected. The small island of Elba was 
given to him by the allies as a sovereign principality. After 
a pathetic farewell to his veteran Guard, he betook himself to 
his small dominion. Louis XVIII., the brother of Louis XVL, 
Avas placed on the throne of France. France, by the Peace of 
Paris (May 30), was left with its ancient boundaries as they 
were before the Eevolution 

The Charter. — The King, according to a promise which he 
had made, promulgated a constitutional charter (June 14, 
1814), guaranteeing to the people certain rights in the govern- 
ment, yet the powers reserved to the crown opened a door 
for arbitrary government and paved the way for the downfall 
of the dynasty. This document was dated from the nine- 
teenth year of Louis XVIII. , as if there had been no Kepublic 
or Empire. At about this time Pope Pius VII. was set free 
by the fall of Xapoleon and reentered Rome. 

Congress of Vienna ; Napoleon's Return. — In September, 1814, 
the allies, through their representatives, met to readjust the 
mai^ of Europe. "While the debates alternating with gay fes- 
tivities w^ere still proceeding, the participants Avere startled by 
the news of the reappearance of Napoleon in France. The 
new Bourbon rule was unpopular Avith the French, and when 
Napoleon, Avith a few. hundred men of the Imperial Guard, 
landed at Cannes, he Avas joined by one regiment after another 
Avhich Avere sent out to crush him. Xey, one of the best of his 
generals, Avas carried aAvay by the common feeling, and in dis- 
regard of his oath of allegiance to Louis, Avent over to the com- 
mand of his old leader. Louis fled from Paris ; and on March 
20, 1815, Napoleon Avas again installed in the Tuileries. 

Waterloo. — Napoleon offered to the country a more liberal 
constitution, but the Bourbons Avere not more hated than he 
Avas mistrusted. He professed to the great poAvers his desire 
for peace, but they did not listen to these assurances. Each 



BATTLE OF WATERLOO 493 

agreed to furnish an army of one hundred and eighty thousand 
men to serve against him. He put forth prodigious exertions 
to gather a force with which to meet the host of his enemies ; 
and although, he could appeal to no warm national feeling, 
such as had called into being the armies of the Eevolution, he 
succeeded in bringing together a force of over one hundred 
thousand men. He decided not to wait for the attack, but to 
assail the two armies of Bllicher and Wellington in Belgium. 
His plan was to attack them separately. Bllicher so far fell 
into the trap, that, in his eagerness to meet the detested foe, 
he offered battle to Napoleon at Ligny (June 16), and, after a 
desperate contest, was forced to retire from the field. On the 
same day, Wellington so far checked Ney in his attack at 
Quatre Bras that he could not strike the Prussians on the 
flank, as Napoleon had designed. Napoleon thought that the 
Prussians would not be able, after their defeat, at once to aid 
Wellington. He sent Grouchy, however, with thirty -four thou- 
sand men, to observe them and inflict on them a final blow. On 
the forenoon of June 18, he himself attacked the British forces 
at Waterloo. The French got possession of La Haye Sainte, a 
farm-house in front of Wellington's center, the scene of a bloody 
contest ; but all their charges on Wellington's main line were 
met and repelled by the immovable squares of the British in- 
fantry. In the afternoon. Napoleon's right began to be assailed 
by the Prussians ; and finding, at seven o'clock, that they were 
coming in great force, he ordered a charge of the Imperial 
Guard on Wellington's forces. After a fierce struggle, the 
Guard was compelled to recoil and retire. The Prussians, 
piercing the right flank of the French army, turned its defeat 
into a rout. Grouchy was at Wavre, fighting the Prussian 
corps of Thielman, which he seems to have mistaken for the 
entire Prussian army. 

Abdication of Napoleon ; St. Helena. — On the 22d of June 
Napoleon again abdicated in favor of his son. The French 
Assembly, with La Fayette at its head, insisted on the abdi- 
cation. On July 7 Bllicher and Wellington entered Paris. 



494 CONGRESS OF VIENNA 

Napoleon fled, and, finding himself unable to escape to Amer-, 
ica, surrendered to the British admiral, and was taken on board 
a British war-ship. Louis XVIII. was brought back to Paris. 
Kapoleon, by the agreement of the allies, was conveyed to the 
island of St. Helena, where he remained, a fretful captive, 
until his death (May 5, 1821). Ney escaped, but was captured, 
condemned, and shot (Dec. 7, 1815). France engaged to pay a 
war indemnity of seven hundred million francs, and its bound- 
aries were fixed as at 1790. 

Character of Napoleon. — Respecting certain traits of Napo- 
leon's character, there is no dispute. His military genius all 
allow, though his daring was sometimes over-daring. His 
intellectual movements were as much swifter than the ordi- 
nary, as his marches were more rapid than those to which 
armies had been accustomed. For civil organization and 
administration he had rare talents, but he had an insatiable 
appetite for war, and a conviction that he could retain his 
authority only by dazzling France. He was careless of human 
suffering. He was capable of warm personal attachments, but 
his tyrannical will would brook no contradiction. It is not 
an injustice to say that he was habitually untruthful. With 
his wonderful powers and amazing achievements, he never 
quite loses the characteristic spirit of an adventurer. 

The Congress of Vienna. — The Congress of Vienna was dis- 
solved in June, 1815. Its acts were finally signed by the five 
great powers, — Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, and 
Russia, and by Spain, Portugal, and Sweden. The Austrian 
and Prussian monarchies were restored, and the German Con- 
federacy was instituted. Holland and Belgium were formed 
into one kingdom of the Netherlands. England vastly en- 
larged her colonial possessions. 






CHAPTER LXXIIl 

AMERICAN HISTORY IN THIS PERIOD, 1789-1815 

The Two Parties. — The cabinet of Washington consisted of 
four members. The Secretary of the Treasury was Alexander 
Hamilton of New York. The Secretary of State was Thomas 
Jefferson of Virginia. The seat of government was placed at 
Philadelphia; but in 1800 it was removed to the District of 
Columbia, which was ceded for the purpose by Virginia and 
Maryland. Almost from the beginning, there Avere two polit- 
ical parties. The Federalists were nmde up of those who had 
been most in favor of the new Constitution, and desired to 
build up a strong central government. Accordingly they ad- 
vocated a liberal construction of the Constitution as regards 
the extent of federal authority. They cherished the tradi- 
tional spirit of the English laws and English political institu- 
tions. AVashington and John Adams belonged to this class, 
and Hamilton was their most active leader. The Anti-Feder- 
alists, of whom Jefferson was the chief, were for a careful 
guarding of the rights of the States, and a strict interpretation 
of the powers allotted to the general government. They had 
more sympathy with the political ideas at that time fast 
coming into vogue in France. They had a warm faith in the 
capacity of the mass of the people for self-government and for 
suffrage. They were called Republicans, and were sometimes 
styled Democrats. 

Hamilton's Measures ; the Conflict of Parties. — Hamilton pro- 
posed and carried many important measures for restoring the 
public credit, and for reviving industry. A protective tariff 
was ordained, and a national bank was incorporated (1790). 

490 



POLITICAL PARTIES 497 

As tlie French Eevolution advanced, the division of parties in 
America became more marked. The Federalists were deter- 
mined to maintain neutrality in the conflict between France 
and Spain. The Anti-Federalists strove to induce the United 
States to take an active part in the war on the side of France. 
Genet, the French minister, dissatisfied with Washington's 
proclamation of neutrality and the Neutrality Act of Con- 
gress (1794), had the effrontery to appeal from the President 
to the people, and at the demand of Washington he was 
recalled. 

Jay's Treaty. — The contest of parties reached its climax in 
connection with Jay's Treaty with Great Britain (1794). This 
treaty was negotiated by John Jay, Chief Justice, whom 
Washington had sent as envoy to London. It provided for 
the giving up of the western posts, of which the British 
still kept possession, but was silent respecting the alleged 
right of the English to take from the decks of American 
vessels sailors who were asserted to be British subjects. The 
treaty encountered violent opposition from the Eepublicans, 
but it was approved by Washington, and the necessary meas- 
ures were carried in Congress by a slender majority obtained 
through the eloquence of Fisher Ames of Massachusetts. 

New States; Invention. — According to the census of 1790, 
there were somewhat less than four millions of people in the 
United States, a little more than one fifth of them being 
negro slaves. A genius for mechanical invention early mani- 
fested itself in the country. Eli Whitney invented the cotton 
gin in 1792. In 1788 John Fitch was running a steamboat on 
the Delaware Eiver, but the construction of a steamboat with 
side paddles was due to the inventive talent of Robert Fulton 
(1807). Emigration was setting toward the West from the 
Atlantic border, by three paths, the valley of the Mohawk, 
the passes of the Alleghanies, and over the Blue Eidge. In 
1792 Kentucky was made a State. Tennessee was admitted 
in 1795, and in the same year a treaty with Spain secured 
the free navigation of the Mississippi 



498 AMERICAN HISTORY 

Washington's Retirement and Death. — Washington himself- 
was not exempt from bitter partisan attack in public prints. 
On his retirement from office, he prepared, with the assistance 
of Hamilton, a Farewell Address to the people, in which he 
exhorted them to maintain the Union as the only safeguard of 
liberty, and warned them against '^ entangling alliances " with 
European powers. The deep and universal sorrow which was 
felt when he died (1799) was a tribute as exalted as any nation 
ever paid to a fallen hero and benefactor. Washington was 
succeeded by John Adams, a Federalist : Jefferson became Vice 
President. The French had seized a large number of American 
vessels on the pretense that they were affording aid to England. 
Pinckney, Gerry, and Marshall were sent as commissioners to 
treat with the French Directory, but were given to understand 
that they must pay money as a bribe before they could be re- 
ceived, and were finally ordered to quit France (1797). The 
phrase of Pinckney, " Millions for defense, but not one cent for 
tribute," has become famous. The indignation of the Ameri- 
can people was aroused. AVashington was made general of the 
forces, and he appointed Hamilton to be second in command. 
The Federalists were eager for war, l)ut President Adams, 
having received private assurances that a new emissary would 
be favorably received by France, suddenly nominated to the 
Senate another ambassador without the knowledge of the Cabi- 
net. A treaty was concluded with Xapoleon, who had come 
into power, but the course of the President gave mortal offense 
to Hamilton and his supporters, and divided the Federalist 
party. 

Resolutions of '98. — The violence of the attacks upon the 
administration, which were made partly by foreign emissaries, 
had caused the Federalists (1797) to pass the alien and sedition 
laws. The first authorized the President to order out of the 
country aliens who were conspiring against its peace. Its 
operation Avas limited to two years. The second punished 
seditious libels upon the government with fine and imprison- 
ment. These acts provoked a storm of opposition. Under the 



ADMINISTRATION OF JEFFERSON 



499 



auspices of Jefferson, and of Madison, who was now one of his 
supporters, the Virginia and Kentucky Eesolutions of 1798-99 
were passed by the legislatures of those States. These resolves 
were understood to affirm the right of a State to judge of the 
constitutionality and validity of an act of Congress. They 
were interpreted as an asser- 




JoiiN Maksiiall 



tion of the extreme doctrine 
of state rights. 

John Marshall. — Near the 
end of his administration, in 
1801, President Adams ap- 
pointed John Marshall Chief 
Justice of the United States. 
He had served as an officer 
in the army for several years ^ 

during the Eevolution, had "^ 
advocated with cogency and 
effect the adoption of the 
Constitution, and held impor- 
tant positions under the new 
government. He was a warm friend and political supporter 
of Washington. As Chief Justice until 1835, he was called 
upon to determine by judicial decisions the meaning of the 
Constitution on points of great moment. He was a Federalist 
in his convictions. The strength and clearness of his reason- 
ing and the breadth of his views have given him the rank of 
the foremost of American jurists, and one of the greatest men 
whom the country has produced. 

Jefferson's Administration. — In 1800 Jefferson was elected 
to the presidency, with Aaron Burr as Vice President. The 
territory known as Louisiana, which comprised the whole re- 
gion between the Mississippi and the Kocky Mountains, was 
purchased from France for fifteen millions of dollars. Hamil- 
ton and Burr fought a duel in which the former was killed 
(1804). The genius of Hamilton, in creating an efficient ad- 
ministration of the new system of government, had a powerful 



500 AMERICAN HISTORY 

influence upon the character and career of the United States. 
The country was deeply moved by his death. Burr was after- 
wards charged with a treasonable attempt to form a new govern- 
ment in the southwest. He was tried for treason (1807), and, 
although not convicted, has been believed by many to have 
been guilty. 

In this administration, pirates of Algiers and other Barbar}^ 
States demanded tribute of American vessels in the Mediter- 
ranean. The first exploits of the navy of the United States 
were in combats with these marauders. Decatur, an able 
and gallant naval officer, rendered good service to his country 
in these contests. Derne was captured, and Tripoli bombarded, 
and a treaty put an end to the exaction of tribute (1805). 
During Jefferson's second term of office, the European powers, 
in pursuance of attempts to establish blockades, and to close 
seaports, placed such restrictions upon neutrals that many 
American ships were seized and confiscated by English and 
French cruisers. The British also exercised the pretended 
right of impressing or seizing American seamen, and compelling 
them to enter the British service. Congress laid the Embargo 
by way of retaliation. It forbade American vessels to leave 
the harbors of the United States for Europe, and forbade 
European vessels to land cargoes in America. The enactments 
were repealed, however, because of their injurious effect upon 
American commerce, and were followed by the Xon-Intercourse 
Act (1809), prohibiting commerce with France and England. 

Madison's Administration; the War of 1812 In 1809 James 

INIadison was elected to the presidency. The country was 
exasperated at the aggressions of Great Britain, and in spite 
of the reluctance of the President, the younger leaders of his 
party — Calhoun, Clay, and Lowndes — brought such pressure 
upon him that war was declared in 1812. A jeav before, at 
Tippecanoe, General William Henry Harrison, Governor of 
Indiana, had defeated the Xorthwestern Indians under Te- 
cumseh, whom the British had incited to war. The war with 
England began with the surrender of Detroit by the American 






WAR WITH ENGLAND 501 

general, Hull, and the repnlse of an expedition sent against 
Canada. On the sea, however. Captain Hull, of the frigate 
Constitution, captured the strong British frigate Guerrih^e, 
while Decatur, captain of the United States, brought the Mace- 
donian as a prize into the harbor of ISTew York. The brave 
Captain Lawrence, in command of the Chesapeake, was killed 
in a fierce conflict with the British vessel Shannon. The 
Chesapeake was insufficiently manned and equipped, and was 
finally captured. The Constitution destroyed the British vessel 
Java, and Commodore Perry defeated and captured the Eng- 
lish fleet on Lake Erie. These naval victories gave the United 
States a standing among the nations. 

On land, Harrison defeated the British and Indians near the 
Thames in Canada. Troops from Tennessee under Andrew 
Jackson, and troops from Georgia and Mississippi, fought the 
Creek Indians with success. Madison had been elected to a 
second term. Another unsuccessful attempt was made to in- 
vade Canada. At Chix3pewa, however, the British were routed, 
and at Lundy's Lane they were repulsed by Winfield Scott. 
The fall of jSTapoleon made it possible for England to send 
reenforcements of her veteran troops, the plan being to invade 
the United States from the north by way of Canada, and from 
the south by way of New Orleans, while the British fleet made 
an attack upon Washington. This last measure was successful. 
Admiral Cockburn sailed up the Potomac and brought disgrace 
upon Great Britain by burning the Cajjitol and other public 
buildings on Aug. 24, 1814. The attack on Baltimore was, how- 
ever, bravely repelled. In the north. Commodore MacDonough 
defeated the British fleet on Lake Champlain, and the British 
army was compelled to retreat to Canada. In the south, 
Pakenham and Gibbs attacked ISTew Orleans, and were com- 
pletely defeated by General Andrew Jackson (Jan. 8, 1815). 
In the meantime negotiations for peace had been begun, 
and before the battle of Xew Orleans, the Treaty of Ghent 
had been signed (Dec. 24, 1814), but the news had not reached 
this country. The historian Bancroft has called the War of 



502 



AMERICAN HTSTOKY 




■J-ScrflW' 



1812-15 "the second war of independence." It imparted to 
Americans the consciousness of power and nationality. In 
1815, a squadron under Decatur was sent to Algiers, and the 
Barbary States were compelled to give up by treaties all their 
demands. 

Literature, Art, and Science during this Period. — In the latter 
part of the eighteenth and the early part of the nineteenth 
century, literature broke away from the artificial rules and 
the one-sided intellectual tone of the "classical" school, — 

that school which had prevailed 
through the influence of the 
French writers of the age of 
Louis XIV. The new era was 
marked l)y a return to nature, 
and by a more free rein given to 
imagination and feeling. " Ivo- 
manticism," a general designa- 
tion of the results of this new 
movement as contrasted with 
the "classical" period, sometimes 
ran out into extravagances of 
sentiment, and an exaggerated 
relish for the mediaeval spirit. 
In France, Chateaubriand gained 
great celebrity, and Madame de 
Stael, a brilliant writer, hostile to Napoleon, made for her- 
self a lasting place in literature. In England, Cowper (1731- 
1800) was a poet of genuine naturalness, who set the example 
of interest in nature and in ever3^-day life. • Robert Burns, 
a Scottish peasant (1759-179G), combined tenderness, pas- 
sion, and humor with poetic fancy and a beautiful simplic- 
ity of diction. Wordsworth (1770-1850) blended in his poems 
a delight in rural and mountain scenery with a deep vein of 
thought and sentiment. Byron (1788-1824), notwithstanding 
his offenses against morality, combined passion with beauty 
and was never dull. Shelley and Keats w^ere poets of the first 




\\--v ,/f -^V^^^/ 



GOETIIE 



LITERATURE AND ART 



503 



order, while Coleridge, Campbell, Eogers, Moore, Landor, and 
Walter Scott were scarcely less eminent. In novel writing, 
Miss Ansten, Miss Porter, and Miss Edgeworth had pre- 
ceded Walter Scott, whose Waverley Novels became the most 
popular works of fiction of 
the age. 

In America, the most im- 
portant writings were of 
a political or theological 
character. In the former 
department, the names of 
Marshall, Hamilton, and 
Jefferson are famous. 

In Germany, the great 
poets Goethe (1749-1832) 
and Schiller (1759-1805) 
produced their famous 
works. By common con- 
sent Goethe is ranked as 
the foremost of German 
authors. In German phi- 
losophy, an important place 
is to be assigned to the writings of Kant (1724-1804). 

In music, Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven are renowned. 
In sculpture, . the Italian Canova (1747-1822), the English- 
man Elaxman (1755-1826), and the Dane Thorwaldsen (1770- 
1844), are justly famous. Among the painters of note may 
be mentioned the French artists David, Vernet, and Dela- 
roche ; the English Reynolds, Gainsborough, and Turner ; 
and the Americans West, Copley, and Trumbull. 




Beethoven 



PEEIOD v. — PEOM THE OONGKESS OP VIENNA (1815) TO 
THE PEESENT TIME 

CHAPTER LXXIV 

INTRODUCTION 

Political Changes in Europe. — The desire of the peoples of 
Europe for constitutional freedom and national unity, after 
the yoke of Napoleon had been thrown off, was for a long 
season bafBled. This was owing partly to the lassitude natu- 
ral after the long and exhausting wars, and more to the com- 
bination of the principal sovereigns, instigated by the love 
of power and the dread of revolution, for the purpose of 
preventing the popular ^-earning from being gratified. But 
in 1830, — when half of the lifetime of a generation had 
passed by, — the overthrow of the old Bourbon line of kings in 
France was the signal for disturbances and changes elsewhere 
on the continent. In England, at about the same time, there 
began an era of constitutional and legislative reforms which 
produced a wider diffusion of political power. In 1848, — 
after a second interval of about equal length, — another revo- 
lutionary crisis occurred. At the same time, movements in 
favor of communism and socialism brought in a new peril. 
Alarm felt on this account by the middle class in France 
was one important aid to the third Xapoleon in reviving the 
empire in France. The condition of Europe — in particular, 
the divided state of Germany — enabled him to maintain a 
leading influence for a score of years in European politics. 
The unification of Germany, which began in the triumph of 

501 



AMERICA; SCIENCE AND INVENTION 505 

Prussia over Austria, was completed in Napoleon's downfall 
through the Franco-German War. The unification of Italy, 
to which Louis Napoleon had contributed by the French alli- 
ance with Piedmont against Austria, was consummated under 
Victor Emmanuel, after his cooperation with Prussia in her 
great struggle with Austria. Thus Germany and Italy reached 
the goal to which they had looked with desire and hope at 
the close of the Napoleonic wars in 1815. 

America. — On the Western Continent, Mexico and the 
South American dependencies of Spain and Portugal gained 
their independence in connection with political revolutions 
in the European countries to which they had been attached. 
The United States, in the enjoyment of peace, and favored 
by great material advantages, advanced with marvelous 
rapidity in population and in wealth. Discord, growing out 
of conflicts connected with the existence of negro slavery 
in the South, brought on at last the Civil War, which termi- 
nated in the conquest of the Confederate States and their 
restoration to the Union, in the emancipation of the slaves, 
and in the prohibition of slavery by constitutional amend- 
ment. 

Military System in Europe. — During this period, in Europe 
there has been a wide diffusion of popular education. But a 
serious hindrance in the way of physical comfort and gen- 
eral improvement in the principal European states has long 
existed, in the immense standing armies and costly mili- 
tary system which their mutual jealousies and apprehensions 
have caused them to keep up. 

Science and Invention. — This period outstrips all previous 
eras as regards the progress of the natural and physical sci- 
ences, and of invention and discovery in the practical applica- 
tions of science. An almost miraculous advance has taken 
place in the means of travel and of transmitting thought. 
There has been an equally marvelous advance in devising 
machinery for use in agriculture and manufactures, and in 
connection with labor of almost every sort. 



506 INTRODUCTION 

Peace and Philanthropy. — The vast extension of commerce, 

with its interchange of products, aiKl the intercourse which is 
incidental to it, has proved favorable to peace among nations. 
The better understanding of economical science, by bringing to 
view the mischiefs of war and the bad policy of selfishness, has 
tended in the same direction. Philanthrop}^ has manifested 
itself with new energy and in new forms of activity. A quick- 
ened and more enlightened zeal has been shown in providing 
for the infirm and helpless, and for mitigating the sufferings 
of the soldier. Missionary undertakings for the conversion 
and civilizing of heathen nations have been a marked feature 
of the age. 

Socialism. — The Industrial Age has had its own perils to 
confront. The progress of manufactures and trade, the accu- 
mulation of wealth unequally distributed, has brought forward 
new questions pertaining to the reciprocal rights of laborer and 
capitalist. Socialism, with novel and startling doctrines as to 
the right of property, and to the proper function of the state, 
has led to movements of grave concern to the order and well- 
being of society. 



I 



CHAPTER LXXV 

EUROPE, FROM THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA (1815) TO THE 
FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1830 

Germany ; the Holy Alliance. — The years of peace which 
followed the War of Liberation produced an increase of 
thrift and of culture in Germany. The Holy Alliance, 
formed at the instigation of Alexander of Enssia, between 
that monarch and Frederick William III. of Prussia and 
Francis I. of Austria, involved a pledge that in dealing with 
their subjects, and with other nations, the parties to it would 
be governed by rules of Christian justice and charity. Most 
of the potentates of Europe, except George IV., King of Eng- 
land, joined the alliance. It turned out to be an instrument 
of despotism. Francis I., with the help of his minister, Met- 
ternich, labored to stifle every effort for an increase of free- 
dom in Germany and elsewhere. The agitation for liberty 
was especially rife among the students in the German univer- 
sities. Demonstrations of a revolutionary character were de- 
nounced by the Emperor Alexander of Russia; but in spite 
of efforts to repress it, the liberal party of freedom and unity 
still held its own, especially in the smaller states. 

France and Spain The Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818) 

withdrew the army of the allies from France. Louis XVIII. 
(1814-1824), although inactive, was not void of good sense. 
The court x^arty, however, were for restoring the system of the 
old monarchy. The liberal party advocated a constitutional 
monarchy. Although not affiliated with this party, La Fayette 
sympathized with their views. In Spain, Ferdinand VII. had 
been restored to liberty by Napoleon in 1814, and had returned 

507 



508 MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA 

to the Spanish throne. This meant the overthrow of the con- 
stitutional monarchy which had been established in 1812. The 
ignorant and superstitious peasantry clung to the feudal and 
ecclesiastical abuses, and Ferdinand found strong support in 
his movement to restore the ancient tyranny. 

Mexico and South America. — In 1821 the independence of 
Mexico was achieved by an insurrection under Iturbide, who, 
however, failed in his effort to make himself emperor. The 
republic of Mexico was organized in 1824, and was recognized 
by the United States five years later. The Spanish colonies 
in South America refused to submit to the French sovereignty 
which had been established in Spain by usurpation, and even 
after its fall they maintained their independence. The col- 
onies gradually developed into separate states, which substan- 
tially corresponded with the political subdivisions of South 
America as they exist to-day. Popular movements in Spain 
alarmed the Holy Alliance, which was opposed to the mani- 
festations of liberal ideas, and at the Congress of Verona 
(October, 1822) they resolved to interfere. Louis XVIII. 
accordingly sent an army into Spain, which released Ferdi- 
nand at Cadiz and gave him the i^ower to revoke all that he 
had done in favor of liberty. Lest the republics of South 
America should fall under French control, they were recog- 
nized by Canning, the foreign secretary of England under 
George IV. 

England; George IV. — George IV. (1820-1830) had been 
regent since 1810. He was extremely unpopular with the 
people. This disfavor was increased by his endeavor to pro- 
cure a divorce from Queen Caroline. Canning, who became 
foreign secretary in 1822, was a disciple of Pitt. Of him 
Guizot says that he transferred England "from the camp of 
resistance and of European order into the camp of liberty." 

Events in Southern Europe ; Greece. — In Portugal, John VI. 
was compelled to accept a liberal constitution framed during 
his absence in Brazil. After his return to Portugal, Dom 
Pedro, his son, made himself emperor in Brazil, and the mother 



GREEK INDEPENDENCE 509 

country recognized the new South American empire in 1825. 
In Naples, a liberal constitution was established as the result of 
an insurrection in Sicily, provoked by the tyrannical influence 
of Austria. The army of the Holy Alliance marched into the 
south of Italy and crushed the revolution. By Ferdinand IV. 
despotism was reestablished. A victory for liberty was won 
by the Greeks, who succeeded, after a long struggle, in throw- 
ing off the hated Ottoman yoke. The Holy Alliance, at the 
Congress of Verona, refused to help the Greek patriots, but in 
1824 they began to receive foreign assistance. Among those 
who volunteered to aid them was the English poet. Lord Byron, 
who died in the Greek service at Missolonghi (1824). In 1825 
the Turks defeated the Greeks at Navarino, but the apprehen- 
sion that Nicholas I. of Russia, who had espoused the cause of 
the Greeks, might seek to divide Turkey with Mehemet Ali, 
resulted in the Treaty of London between the Great Powers, 
which founded the kingdom of the Greeks. The Turkish-Egyp- 
tian fleet was destroyed at Navarino (Oct. 26, 1827). 



CHAPTER LXXVI 

EUROPE, FROM THE REVOLUTION OF 1830 TO THE REVO- 
LUTIONARY EPOCH OF 1848 

Charles X. — Louis XYIII. died in 1824. His brother 
Charles X. (1824-1830) dealt generously Avith the collateral 
branch of the Bourbons, the house of Orleans. He restored 
to Louis Philippe the vast estates of the Orleans family, and 
gave him the title of Royal Highness. But he failed to secure 
the cordial support of this ambitious relative. The Duke of 
Orleans stood well with the King, but was on good terms with 
the liberal leaders. The King sought to reinstate the ideas and 
ways of the old regime, but liberal views in politics gained 
ground in the second Chamber, as well as in the army and 
among the people. In 1829 here came into power a minis- 
try the principal members of which represented the extreme 
reactionary and royalist party. Their active opponents found 
that their assaults on the government were generally applauded. 
All of these were brilliant political writers. Constant (from 
1825) had been the leader of the opposition. Thiers and 
Guizot were at this time united in the advocacy of a constitu- 
tional system, as opposed to the reactionary policy and the 
arbitrary government to which the King and his ministers were 
committed. Later, the paths of these two statesmen diverged. 
In 1830 Guizot was the opposition leader in the Chamber of 
Deputies. The Chambers were dissolved by the King. The 
capture of Algiers, in a war against the piratical power of 
which it was the seat, did not avail to lessen the growing hos- 
tility to his government. This was manifested through the 
press and in speeches at a great banquet. 

510 



REVOLUTIONS OF 1830-32 511 

The July Revolution. — In July, 1830, a tumult broke out in 
Paris. The mob engaged in a conflict with the soldiers. The 
people armed themselves. La Fayette arrived in Paris and 
assumed control of the National Guard. The King refused to 
make concessions. Louis Philippe entered Paris on July 30. 
The Deputies made him lieutenant general of the kingdom. 
Louis Philippe was cordially received by La Fayette and his 
associates, who agreed that there should be " a popular throne, 
with free institutions." On August 2 Charles X., deserted by 
his troops, abdicated his throne and fled from the kingdom. 
The Dexjuties chose Louis Philippe King of the French. He 
owed his election to the middle classes, and claimed to be the 
"citizen king." 

Belgium. — Influenced doubtless by the example of France, 
the people of Brussels, who were restless under the rule of 
William I., broke out in revolt and created a provisional gov- 
ernment. A conference of ministers at London recognized the 
new state, which adopted a liberal constitution and chose Leo- 
pold I. as king. 

Poland. — In Poland there was also an uprising. The rule 
of the Eussians had been harsh, but the Czar Nicholas would 
make no terms with the insurgents. The Poles fought with 
desperate valor, but were overwhelmed by superiority of num- 
bers in a series of bloody battles. Poland was reduced to a 
Eussian province. The army was merged in the Russian 
forces, the university was suppressed, the Poman Catholic reli- 
gion was persecuted, and it was computed that in one year 
(1832) eighty thousand Poles were sent to Siberia. 

Germany ; Hungary ; Italy. — When the tidings of the revo- 
lution at Paris reached Germany, there were disturbances in 
some of the minor states. In the Diet of 1832 Louis Kossuth 
first appeared as a member. Between the years 1828 and 1834, 
many of the German states formed a Zollverein, or customs 
union, which was an important step in the direction of national 
unity. Meanwhile all Italy was in a state of ferment. The 
uprisings were put down Avith the assistance of Austrian troops. 



512 REFORM IN ENGLAND 

The head of the movement of " Young Italy " for independence 
and unity was Mazzini, a man of elevated spirit and disinter- 
ested aims. 

England. — In England, reform went forward peacefully. 
The national debt at the close of the wars with Napoleon 
amounted to nearly eight hundred millions of pounds. The 
exclusion of Eonian Catholics from offices of trust and distinc- 
tion led to the introduction and adoption of the Catholic 
Emancipation Bill. William IV. (1830-1837) had succeeded 
to the throne on the death of George TV. The Tory ministry, 
which had been formed by the Duke of Wellington, resigned, 
and was succeeded by the ministry of Earl Grey. A bill for 
the reform of the Parliamentary system was introduced. One 
hundred and forty-three members of the House of Commons 
sat as representatives from fifty-six " rotten or decayed " 
boroughs, while such large towns as Birmingham and Man- 
chester had no representation. The Keform Bill was designed 
to accomplish a fair redistribution. Its repeated rejection by 
the House of Lords caused a violent agitation. Finally, in 
1832, when it was understood that the King would create new 
peers enough to pass the measure, it was carried in the upper 
house, and became a law. 

In 1833 the system of slavery in British colonies was 
abolished upon the payment of twenty millions of pounds as 
a compensation to slave owners. The monopoly of the East 
India Company was brought to an end, and trade with the 
East was made free to all merchants. In 1839 the riotous 
Chartist movement took place, and a vain demand was made 
for universal suffrage, annual Parliaments, and other radical 
changes. Two years before, in June, 1837, Victoria, the only 
child of the Duke of Kent, had succeeded her. uncle William 
IV. The refusal of the Chinese government to allow the im- 
portation of opium led Great Britain to declare war. In a 
revolt of the Afghans, a British army was destroyed in the 
Khyber Pass. The British then conquered Afghanistan, but 
did not care to retain it. In 1840 the Queen married her 






LOUIS PHILIPPE 



513 



cousin, Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Richard Cobden, 
effectively aided by John Bright, advocated the repeal of the 
Corn Laws, which, since 1815, had imposed duties on imported 
grain. In 1846 the measure was carried with the help of Sir 
Robert Peel, of the conserva- 
tives, by whoni he had been 
raised to power. He was 
bitterly assailed, especially 
by Disraeli, who was rising 
to the position of a leader 
among them. 

France ; Louis Phillippe. — 
Louis Philippe, by shrewd 
management, was enabled to 
maintain his popularity at 
home. Several unsuccessful 
attempts were, however, made 
upon his life by the agents of 
secret societies. Louis Napo- 
leon Bonaparte made a series 
of abortive attempts to gain 
the throne. He was encouraged by the effect in France of the 
failure of French policy in the affairs of the East. Finally he 
landed at Boulogne with a few followers and proclaimed him- 
self emperor. He was captured, tried, and imprisoned in the 
fortress of Ham, where he spent six years. In 1841 the re- 
mains of Napoleon I. were brought from St. Helena to Paris and 
were deposited with great pomp in a magnificent tomb under 
the dome of the Church of the Invalides. Guizot became the 
principal minister of Louis Philippe, and Thiers, who had re- 
signed in 1840, was the leader of the opposition. The govern- 
ment of Louis Philippe satisfied neither party, — the legitimists 
who wanted to restore the elder branch of the Bourbons, nor 
the republicans. Official corruption was widespread, though 
Guizot himself was upright. The failure of the government 
to support the cause of liberty in Poland and Italy added to 




ViCTOKIA 



514 



FALL OF THE ORLEANS GOVERNMENT 



its growing unpopularity. Louis Philippe was charged with 
avarice. He caused his youngest son to marry the sister of 
Isabella II. of Spain with the design of securing the Spanish 
crown for his heirs. The dissatisfaction in France was in- 
creasing. Matters were brought to a crisis in February, 1848. 
At length soldiers began to fraternize with the mob, and the 
King, who showed no spirit or firmness, abdicated in favor of 
his grandson, the Count of Paris. Lamartine and the party 
of order checked the ultra-republican and socialistic factions, 
and established a provisional government, Feb. 24. In April, 
and also in May, mobs of communists were suppressed by 
the National Guards. Louis Napoleon, having been elected 
a member of the Assembly, was chosen first President of the 
Republic under the new constitution for a term of four years. 







ipipf iiiiiiliillS . 



=iSS^^^^lii^: 




New Hmises ok Pakliament (l640-lb(J7) 



CHAPTER LXXVII 

EUROPE, FROM THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848 TO THE 
AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR (1866) 

Germany. — The effect of the French Revolution of 1848 
was felt like an electric shock throughout Europe. In the 
larger as well as smaller states of Germany, the authority 
of the rulers was subverted or shaken. Prussia and Austria 
had to give way to the popular demands, enforced by mobs 
in Berlin and Vienna. There was a gathering at Frankfort 
of about five hundred Germans, who organized themselves as 
a provisional parliament (March 31). They resolved to call a 
National Assembly, to be elected by the German people. The 
Confederate Diet recognized the authority of the provisional 
parliament. The National Assembly met on May 18, and 
created a new provisional central government, with the Arch- 
duke John of Austria as its head. The Confederate Diet 
ceased to exist. But the division of parties in the Assembly, 
with respect to the system of government for united Germany, 
gave rise to long and profitless discussions. Differences of 
opinion as to the steps to be taken in a war which had sprung 
up with Denmark, respecting the duchies of Schleswig and 
Holstein, made the strife of factions in the parliament still 
more bitter. 

New Prussian Constitution. — The Prussian National Assembly 
met on May 22. A hot contention arose between the mod- 
erate and the radical parties. Contention was kept up until 
the government framed a constitution with two chambers, — 
the second to be chosen by universal suffrage, — and called a 
new parliament to consider it. The new parliament failed to 

515 



516 AUSTRIA AND HUNGARY 

agree with the government, but another parliament met 
(Aug. 1, 1849). Mutual concessions were made, and the King 
swore to maintain the new constitution (Feb. 6, 1850). 

Austria. — In the Diet of the Austrian Empire, Kossuth, the 
eloquent Hungarian deputy, demanded independence for his 
country. The Slavonic tribes resisted the supremacy of the 
Magyars. When the Emperor took active measures against 
these, there was an uprising in Vienna, which led to the cap- 
ture of the city by the Emperor, who, however, abdicated in 
favor of his youthful son, Erancis Joseph. The Frankfort 
Assembly debated the question, what relation Austria should 
have to united Germany. A majority decided (March 27, 1849) 
that a president should be appointed, whose office should descend 
in his family, and that he should be styled Emperor of the 
Germans. The station was offered to Frederick William of 
Prussia, but he declined it. The new constitution was not 
accepted by the more important states. The assembly dwin- 
dled away through the withdrawal or resignation of members, 
and, having adjourned to Stuttgart, was finally dispersed by 
the Wiirtemberg government (June 18). Its history was a 
grievous disappointment of ardent hopes. The Prussians 
helped the Saxon, Bavarian, and Baden governments to put 
down formidable and partially successful popular insurrections 
in their states. 

The projects of the Frankfort Assembly to secure stability and 
union in Germany came to naught. Its history was a grievous 
disappointment to the friends of free government. 

A struggle between Austria and Hungary was now inevita- 
ble. The brave Himgarians gained several victories, but Rus- 
sia sent an army against them, and the Hungarian general sur- 
rendered, Kossuth and other patriots flying to Italy. The 
people of Hungary were treated with brutal severity by the 
Austrian conquerors. 

Italy ; the Papacy. — Despotic government prevailed in Italy. 
In 1846 Pius IX. became Pope. He adopted a new and liberal 
policy. Prior to the overthrow of the government of Louis 



I 



FRANCE; LOUIS NAPOLEON 517 

Philippe, Italy was fairly on fire with revolutionary move- 
ments. Garibaldi, a gallant and adventurous champion of the 
Italian movement, was active in his opposition to Austria. 
Charles Albert, King of Piedmont, or Sardinia, declared war 
against Austria, but he was utterly defeated at Novara (March 
23, 1848). He resigned the crown to his son, Victor Emmanuel. 
In him and in Garibaldi the hope of those who aimed to secure 
the freedom of Italy rested. The cause of national inde|)en- 
dence seemed, however, to be at a low ebb, for by the close of 
the summer of 1849 the Austrian authority was restored and 
the will of Austria was law in the greater part of the Italian 
peninsula. 

France; Louis Napoleon. — In France, the trading class felt 
that the safety of society depended upon Napoleon. He thus 
profited by the dread of the ultra-republicans as the first 
Napoleon had been sustained by the dread of Jacobin rule. 
His measures for the restraint of the press, the punishment of 
political offenses, etc., were popular. The soldiers in the 
autumn of 1850 began to shout " Vive TEmpereur ! " The 
Assembly was suspicious of the President, and the hostility 
between them culminated in what is known as the Coup 
d'Etat of Dec. 3 and 4, 1851. Napoleon was certain of the 
adherence of the troops, and on the evening of the 3d he gave 
a great party. During the night the republican and the Or- 
leanist leaders were surprised in their beds and imprisoned. 
The deputies attempted to meet, but were surrounded and 
placed under arrest. The soldiers fired on gatherings of people 
in the streets in order to intimidate them. Napoleon went 
before the country for election and received seven and a half 
million votes, while only 640,737 were cast against him. A 
new constitution was promulgated in January, 1852, and the 
Assembly was virtually stripped of its power. One year later 
the restoration of the empire was decreed. The decree was 
sanctioned by popular vote, and Napoleon's imperial govern- 
ment was soon recognized by the other powers of Europe, 
which at first had viewed it with much alarm. 



518 THE CRIMEAN WAR 

The Crimean War. — The Emperor's policy was acceptable to 
the commercial classes. He beautified Paris, and made many 
other improvements. In 1853 he married a young vSpanish 
countess. He united with England in the prosecution of the 
Crimean War against the Czar Nicholas, of Russia, who in 
1853 had declared war against Turkey. The real motive of 
Russia's action was the Czar's plan to obtain the supreme 
power in Turkey, although the professed occasion of the war 
was a dispute about the holy places in Jerusalem, and the dif- 
ferent treatment of Greek and Latin Christians by the Sultan. 
War was declared by England and France in alliance with 
Turkey on March 28, 1854. The shores of the Black Sea 
became the theater of the conflict. The troops of the English 
and French landed at Eupatoria in the Crimea and defeated the 
Russians in the battle of the Alma. A month later, in October, 
1854, there was a bloody engagement at Balaklava^ and in the 
battle of Inkermann, in November, the attempt of the Russians 
to surprise the British forces met with a defeat. The efforts 
of the allies were directed to the capture of the fortress at 
Sebastopol. After a month's bombardment, two of the Rus- 
sian batteries were captured, and the Russians blew up some 
of their forts at Sebastopol, and withdrew to the northern part 
of the fortress. Nicholas having died in March, 1855, Alex- 
ander II. succeeded him, and a year later the Peace of Paris 
was signed, by which Russia was obliged to cede the mouths 
of the Danube, to limit the number of her ships in the Black 
Sea, and to give up her claim to an exclusive protectorate over 
Christians in Turkey. In a distinct treaty, Austria, France, 
and Great Britain guaranteed the independence of the Otto- 
man Empire. 

War of France and Sardinia with Austria. — After the con- 
tests of 1848-49, Victor Emmanuel II. became the champion 
of Italian independence. Cavour, his chief minister, formed 
an alliance with Napoleon, one of the objects of which was the 
expulsion of the Austrians from Ital3^ France and Sardinia 
declared war against Austria. Cavour was supported by all 



WAR OF FRANCE AND SARDINIA WITH AUSTRIA 519 

Italian patriots. Garibaldi led the " Eiflemen of the Alps," 
and Louis iSTapoleon commanded the French army in person. 
On June 4, 1859, at Magenta, and on June 21 of the same 
year at Solferino, the French were victorious. Much to the 
indignation of Cavour, however, ISTapoleon unexpectedly ar- 
ranged preliminaries of peace with Austria, which indeed 
provided for the cession of Lombardy to Sardinia, but left 
Venice and the important district known as the Quadrilat- 
eral under the Austrian rule. The plan of Napoleon and 
Francis Joseph of Austria was to form an Italian confedera- 
tion with the Pope for its president. Napoleon finally con- 
sented that Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and Eomagna should 
annex themselves to Sardinia, with the result that they be- 
came incorporated into the Sardinian kingdom. Garibaldi 
having conquered Sicily (1860) and Naples, he defeated the 
French general in the service of the Pope, and hailed 
Victor Emmanuel as King of Italy. Naples and Sicily voted 
to join the kingdom of Sardinia, and the whole of Italy was 
now united under the house of Savoy, with the exception of 
Venice and the Eoman Camx3agna. The national party were 
eager to gain Venice and Pome. France, however, acted as 
protector of the -Holy See ; but in 1861 it was agreed that the 
French troops should graduall}^ be withdrawn from Pome, while 
Victor Emmanuel undertook to prevent attacks upon the papal 
territory. 



CHAPTER LXXVIII 

EUROPE, FROM THE BEGINNING OE THE AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN 
WAR TO THE END OF THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR (1866- 
1871) 

Rivalship of Prussia and Austria. — Tlie brief but mighty 
struggle which secured for Prussia tlie preponderance in Ger- 
many grew immediately out of complications respecting Schles- 
wig-Holstein. It was, however, the fruit of a rivalship which 
had been gaining in intensity since the times of Frederick 
the Great. It was the grand triumph of Prussia, after a 
long succession of defeats and humiliations in the field of 
diplomacy. 

Schleswig-Holstein. — The two duchies of Holstein and 
Schleswig had long been annexed to the crown of Denmark, 
whose king, as Duke of Holstein, was a member of the German 
Confederation. When there was a prospect that the Danish 
dynasty Avould die out, the German party wished to make the 
duchies independent, under a duke of the line of the next Ger- 
man heirs. The root of the difficulty was an antipathy of 
races. In 1848 the Germans of Schleswig-Holstein revolted 
against Ferdinand VII. AYar, waged by Schleswig-Holstein 
alone or with aid from Germany against Denmark, went on 
with intermissions ; until in a protocol — an agreement signed 
in London in 1852 by the Great Powers, in which Austria and 
Prussia concurred, — the King of Denmark and his heirs were 
guaranteed in the possession of the duchies. This act, how- 
ever, was not accepted by the duchies themselves, or by the 
Diet of the German Confederation ; so that the seeds of strife 
still remained. 

520 



THE AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR 521 

Preponderance of Austria. — After the suppression of tlie re- 
volts of 1S48, Austria labored to dwarf and supplant the influ- 
ence of Prussia. Frederick William IV. of Prussia aimed to 
bring about a closer union of German states. Austria with- 
stood these attempts. Pussia favored the side of Austria. 
Under the influence of Pussia, the German Confederation of 
1815 was restored. Put Prussia took no part with the Western 
powers in the Crimean War, with which it had no direct con- 
cern, and thus did not, like Austria, make herself obnoxious to 
the Czar. 

William I. ; Bismarck. — On the accession of William I. as 
regent (October, 1857), the Prussian government initiated a 
more spirited and independent policy in its relations to Aus- 
tria. It refused to lend active aid to that country in the war 
with France and Sardinia (1859). The efiicient measures of 
King AYilliam for the reorganization and increase of the army 
encountered constant opposition, year after year, in the Prus- 
sian Diet, from the liberal party, which did not divine his 
motives, and saw in them nothing but the usurping of an un- 
constitutional authority. In 1862 the King made Bismarck 
minister of foreign affairs, and the virtual head of the admin- 
istration. He had always been for " strong government." 
After 1851, when he was delegate of Prussia at the Federal 
Diet at Frankfort, he made up his mind to deliver Prussia 
from the domineering influence of Austria. 

Events leading to War. — On :\rarch 30, 1863, Ferdinand YII. 
of Demnark issued a decree for the sex^aration of Schleswig, 
and its incorporation in Denmark. The troops of the German 
Confederacy were sent by the Diet into Holstein. The vic- 
tories of Austria and Prussia over the Danes compelled Ferdi- 
nand to sign a treaty fOct. 30, 1861) by which he resigned 
his rights to the duchies in favor of the Emperor of Austria 
and the King of Prussia. How should the duchies be disposed 
of ? On this question Austria and Prussia would not agree. 
It was Bismarck's aim to annex them to Prussia, which was 
sorely in need of seaports. Bismarck made a secret treaty with 



522 



THE AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR 



Sardinia, which provided that Prussia and Sardinia shoukl act- 
together in case of war with Austria, and that peace shoukl 
not be made until Venetia had been given up to the kingdom 
of Italy. When Austria handed over the Schleswig-Holstein 
question to the Diet, Prussia sent twenty thousand troops into 
Holstein. The Austrian force, which was inferior, retired. 
When the Confederation (June 14) passed a motion made by 







Bismarck 



Austria to put the confederate troops, not Austrian or Prus- 
sian, on a war footing, the Prussian plenipotentiary protested, 
and declared the Diet dissolved. He also presented a new 
constitution as the basis of a new league of states, from which 
Austria was to be excluded. Prussia issued a proclamation 
to the effect that the purpose of the war that was now to begin 
was the union of Germany, and the establishment of a free 
parliament of the German nation. 



THE AUSTRO-PEUSSIAN WAR 523 

The Austro-Prussian War. — The Prussian military plans were 
framed by Von Moltke, who was without a superior in military 
science. With astonishing rapidity three Prussian armies 
moved upon the Austrian army in Bohemia. The movements 
of the Prussian armies were directed from Berlin by telegraph. 
On June 30 King William and Yon Moltke set out thence, 
and on the 2d of July determined to attack the Austrians 
the next day. In the morning the great battle of Sadowa was 
fought, in which the Prussians gained a decisive victory. The 
Peace of Prague was concluded between Prussia and Austria 
Aug. 23, 1866. Venice, at the request of Prussia, was ceded 
to Italy, and Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nas- 
sau, and Frankfort became parts of Prussia. The North Ger- 
man Confederation was formed under the leadership of Prussia. 
Prussia was to have seventeen votes in the council of the Con- 
federation, and the other states together twenty-six votes. 
Bismarck was made chancellor of the Confederation. Great 
changes likewise took place in Austria, and the Austro-Hunga- 
rian Empire was, as a result of the Avar, reorganized on a more 
liberal basis. 

Louis Napoleon Baffled. — The Austro-Prussian War hastened 
the downfall of Louis Napoleon. The defeat of Austria was 
accomplished so quickly that he could not come in as mediator 
and secure the extension of France to the E-hine. He had 
been outwitted by Cavour, and he was now baf9.ed by Bis- 
marck. The Emperor attempted to secure cessions of territory 
from Prussia, but was met with a blunt refusal from the Prus- 
sian chancellor. The French government, jealous of the Prus- 
sian military achievements, sought a pretext for war with 
Prussia. The pretext was found in the offer of the Spanish 
crown by the Cortes, in 1870, to Prince Leopold, who belonged 
to a younger branch of the family of King William of Prussia 
— an offer which was made after Queen Isabella had been 
obliged, by the insurrection, to fly to France. Napoleon went 
so far as to insist that William should engage never to support 
the candidacy of a Hohenzollern prince for the Spanish crown. 



524 



THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR 



A report was spread abroad that William refused to listen to the- 
Freucli ambassador, who was said to have accosted him abruptly. 
This act was represented at Paris as an insult to France, and 
orders were issued to mobilize the army. The Confederate 
Diet assembled July 19, and placed its resources at the dis- 
posal of the King. On the same day France declared war. In 
a moment, Germany was ablaze with patriotic enthusiasm. 
The French army was not in the state of readiness which 

had been alleged to exist. 
The masterly plans of Von 
Moltke and the swift move- 
ments of the Germans broke 
up the French programme. 
The Germans gained three 
victories within three days 
— at Weissenburg, at 
Worth, and at Saarbriicken. 
At Gravelotte (August 18), 
a hotly contested battle was 
fought for the purpose of 
preventing ^Marshal Ba- 
zaine from joining the 
main French army under 
^larshal MacMahon. Ba- 
zaine Avas defeated, and 
M a c ]M a h o n concentrated 
his forces to meet the on- 
slaught of the Prussians at Sedan. On September 1 the 
decisive battle was fought. The French were worsted and 
surrendered, and Napoleon yielded his sword to King William. 
The surrendered army numbered eighty-four thousand men, 
with fifty generals and five thousand other officers. The im- 
perial government fell to pieces. The Empress Eugenie escaped 
to England. A republic was proclaimed, and the defense of 
Paris was undertaken with extraordinary energy. For four 
months the Germans prosecuted the siege of the city with 




Emperou William 



THE COMMUNISTS IN FRANCE 525 

unflinching determination. Gambetta, tlie Minister of the 
Interior under the new republic, escaped from Paris in a bal- 
loon, and formed Uvo armies at Tours, both of which were 
defeated. Bazaine surrendered Metz with the main French 
army. On Jan. 18, 1871, King William was formally pro- 
claimed Emperor of Germany, in the Hall of Mirrors at Ver- 
sailles, in accordance with the offer of the Confederation. On 
the 28th, after valiant efforts to raise the siege, the French 
surrendered Paris, and the preliminaries of a peace were 
arranged which included the cession of Alsace and the Ger- 
man part of Lorraine with Metz, and the payment of an 
indemnity of five thousand million francs. 

The German Imperial Constitution. — The first Diet of the new 
German Empire was opened at Berlin on March 21. The 
constitution of it left to each state the management of its 
domestic affairs. To the imperial government, with the Fed- 
eral Council, to the Diet, and to the emperor as executive, 
were committed the affairs of common interest. The president 
of the Council was the imperial chancellor : Bismarck was 
appointed to that office. The Diet, or imperial |)arliament, was 
chosen by general suffrage. The new empire resembles the old 
German Kingdom : it is not a revival of the Holy Eoman Em- 
pire, whose existence terminated in 1806. 

Contest with the Communists ; Republican Constitution After 

the conditions of peace with the Germans were settled, Paris 
had to pass through a terrible period of disorder. The com- 
munists were bent on establishing municipal independence, or 
the self-government of the commune, and a democratic repub- 
lic. They demanded a federation of the townships, or com- 
munes, and distrusted the republicanism of the officials who 
were in the exercise of power. They are not to be confounded 
with communists in the socialistic sense. The party comprised 
a multitude of fanatical democrats of the lower classes, who 
were ready for the most violent measures. After the surrender 
of Paris, they gained possession of the northern part of the 
city and fortified it. The attempt to get back the cannon. 



526 



THE COMMUNISTS IN FRANCE 



which they had seized caused a great communist uprising 
(March 18, 1871). A new reign of terror began. Darboy, 
the Archbishop of Paris, and many others, were murdered. 
MacMahon, acting for the Assembly, besieged Paris anew; 
the Germans being neutral in the forts that were still left, 
according to the treaty, in their hands. In the fierce struggle 
for the possession of the city, the principal buildings of Paris 
Avere set on fire by tlie savage communistic mob. The Tuile- 
ries, the Hotel de A^ille, and a part of the Palais Eoyal, with 
other public edifices, were destroyed. The insurrection was 
at length suppressed, and severe punishments Avere inflicted. 
A large number of the ringleaders were either shot or trans- 
ported. 




The TuiLEKiKs 



CHAPTER LXXIX 

EUROPE, FROM THE THIRD FRENCH REPUBLIC AND THE 
UNION OF ITALY (1871) 

Completed Union of Italy. — When the war between Prussia 
and Prance broke out, the republicans in Italy were disposed 
to take possession of Eonie at once. The King, bound by the 
agreement with Prance, prevented it. But with the fall of 
Napoleon, Victor Pmmanuel, professing that he was bound to 
maintain order in the peninsula, sent his troops into Pome. 
The Pope lost his temporal dominions, and was limited to the 
title and prerogatives of the spiritual head of the Catholic 
Church. The seat of the Italian government was removed to 
the ancient ruling city (July 1, 1871). 

Pius IX. ; the Council of the Vatican. — The long pontificate of 
Pius IX. was distinguished by important acts having relation 
to the doctrine and discipline of the Poman Catholic Church. 
In 1854 he promulgated the declaration of the Immaculate 
Conception of the Virgin Mary — that is that she was born 
without the taint of original sin — a question which had long 
been debated in the schools of theology. Ten years later 
(1864) he issued an Encyclical, together with a Syllabus of 
Errors, in which, besides the condemnation of opinions in 
matters of faith which were adjudged heterodox, various al- 
leged encroachments of the civil authority and heretical views 
on marriage and other subjects were denounced. In 1870 the 
CEcumenical Council of the Vatican assembled, and after long 
debate sanctioned the doctrine of papal infallibility ; that is, 
they approved the dogma that the Pope, when addressing the 
whole Church on a subject of morals or theology, is kept by 
the Spirit of God from enunciating error, 

527 



580 THE RUSSO-TURKISH WAR 

Revolution in Spain. — After a revolution which resulted in 
the flight of Queen Isabella from Spain, a war of faction arose. 
Amadeus, the second son of the King of Italy, accepted the 
crown, but was compelled to abdicate. Don Carlos, son of the 
first cousin of the late Queen, began a contest in the north, and 
for a while was successful in his efforts to raise himself to 
power. Alfonso, the youthful son of Isabella, was, however, 
proclaimed king by General Campos ; the army pronounced in 
his favor, and Don Carlos driven out of the country. Alfonso 
died in 1885. In 1886 his son, the infant King Alfonso XIII., 
attained to the throne. 

The Ottoman Empire. — In 1875 certain Turkish provinces 
aided by the little independent kingdom of Montenegro, and 
by Servia, rebelled against the intolerable oppression of the 
Sultan. The three European emperors moved the Sultan to 
pledge himself to an extensive programme of reforms in the 
revolted provinces — a pledge which there was no intention on 
his part to fulfill. England refused to join with Kussia, Ger- 
many, Austria, and France in threatening " more effectual " 
measures, in case of the Porte's refusal to carry out his prom- 
ises. Great Britain was bent at all costs on keeping the Sul- 
tan's empire as a barrier in the way of Russian ambition. A 
revolt in Bulgaria was crushed by the Turks, with terrible 
atrocities that shocked all Christendom (1876). Efforts at ob- 
taining from Turkey guarantees for the benefit of oppressed 
subjects proved fruitless, and Russia allowed its subjects to 
render effective help in the revolted districts. England, on the 
other hand, advocated longer forbearance with the Sultan, and 
though she persisted in announcing that no assistance would 
be given to Turkey, the Sultan was emboldened by her attitude 
to refuse compliance with the Czar's demands. 

In April, 1877, Russia began the Russo-Turkish War. The 
Russian troops seized the Shipka Pass, and after a gallant re- 
sistance gained a series of victories. Russia concluded with 
Turkey the Peace of San Stefano (March 3, 1878), the stipula- 
tions of which greatly reduced the Turkish power in Europe. 



THE BERLIN TREATY 531 

England concluded a secret treaty engaging to protect Turkey 
in Asia, Cyprus being given up to British occupation. Austria 
as well as Great Britain was anxious to deprive Eussia of the 
advantages which she had gained, by a war. Another great war 
was threatened, but it was averted by the Congress at Berlin 
(June 13-July 16, 1878), where Great Britain was represented 
by Disraeli, and Bussia by Gortchakof. Bussia obtained Kars, 
but her gains were far less than she deemed herself entitled to 
receive. Servia, and Boumania, and Montenegro were declared 
independent. Bulgaria was divided into two portions, one of 
which was to be governed by the Sultan directly, but with a 
separate administration under a Christian governor. 

Bussia Avas offended with Germany for repaying her neutral- 
ity in the Branco-Brussian War by helping the schemes of 
England and Austria in the Berlin Conference. The sympathy 
of the Emperor William after the endeavor made to assassi- 
nate Alexander (Feb. 17, 1880) tended to restore cordiality. 
Bussia, however, was greatly embarrassed by the activity of 
the Nihilists by whom Alexander was murdered (March 13, 
1881). The murdered Czar had introduced a much more leni- 
ent rule than that of Nicholas. The serfs were emancipated in 
1861, but ways of oppression were still open to the nobles, who 
caused the emancipated class to suffer severely. The adminis- 
tration was seen to be corrupt in the light of the war with Tur- 
key, and out of the revolutionary party, which began by demand- 
ing a constitution, the Terrorists emerged — a secret body which 
sought for a remedy for social and governmental evils by anni- 
hilating all Christian bodies in Church and State. The despotic 
measures of the government, which in 1879 and 1880 sent sixty 
thousand persons to Siberia without a trial, were followed by 
the more desperate attempts of the Nihilist conspirators, which 
culminated in the murder of the Czar. He was succeeded by 
his son Alexander III. 

The French Republic since 1871. — Thiers had wonderful suc- 
cess in providing for the payment of the German indemnity. 
His term of ofl&ce was prolonged (Aug. 31, 1871) for three 



582 THE FRENCH REPUBLIC SINCE 1871 

years, with the title of President. He lost his office in 1873 
by a combination of the monarchical parties. MacMahon, his 
successor, took a very conservative position. He \Yas sup- 
ported by the various anti-republican parties. His presiden- 
tial term was prolonged to seven years. In February, 1875, 
a new constitution, of a conservative republican cast, was es- 
tablished, which provided for a x^i'esident and a cabinet, a 
senate, and a chamber of deputies. The legitimists, Orlean- 
is|j^, and imperialists united with the President in his reaction- 
ary, anti-republican policy. The whole clerical party were on 
that side. The republicans, besides Thiers and Gambetta, — 
the heads of the Opportunists, as they were styled, — had 
among their leaders several eminent jurists, of whom Grevy 
was one. One of the subjects of controversy related to public 
education, in the management of which the Church and the 
clergy desired to retain and extend their influence and control. 
The success of the republicans, against extraordinary efforts 
made to defeat them, in the elections of 1877, at last prevailed 
on the marshal-president to accept the verdict of the country ; 
and late in the year a republican cabinet w^as formed. The 
death of the young Prince Louis Napoleon (1879) in South 
Africa, w^here he was serving, under the British, against the 
Zulus, was an almost fatal blow to the hopes of the Bonapartist 
faction. The death of Count Chambord (1883) Avas followed 
by the recognition, on the part of the legitimists, of the Count 
of Paris, of the Orleans house, as the next heir to the throne. 
In November, 1881, Gambetta became the head of the cabinet ; 
but the opposition to his i^olicy within the republican ranks 
was stronger than had been anticix^ated. After a short time he 
laid down his office. An important event in the later history 
was the assassination of the President, Carnot, in June, 1891. 
During these changes, France consistently endeavored to 
build up colonial interests and settlements. She enlarged 
her power in Africa, and has thus given great offense to Italy 
and the Turkish Sultan. France also put forth efforts to gam 
control over Tonquin, the most populous ]jrovince of the king- 



I 



THE BRITISH SWAY IN INDIA 533 

dom of Anam, and the adjacent territory in China. Over the 
claims of the French there have been repeated conflicts and 
many negotiations. 

The Conflict of Prussia and the Vatican. — As a matter of pol- 
icy, the Prussian government, under the auspices of Bismarck, 
undertook to recognize and protect the party known as the 
Old Catholics, dissenters from the decision of the Vatican 
Council relative to papal infallibility. The Falk laws pro- 
posed by the Prussian minister of worship (Falk) and other 
similar measures were resisted by the Center or clerical 
party in the Imperial Diet. After the accession of Leo XIII., 
diplomatic correspondence was opened with the Vatican. 
Some of the harsher features of anti-papal laws were revoked. 
Bismarck's pacific attitude was to some extent influenced by 
his wish to present as strong a front as possible in stifling the 
increased socialistic agitations. He was also obliged to con- 
tend with the Particularists, who were hostile to the Em- 
pire and who opposed imperial centralization. By his alliance 
with Austria, in 1879, he placed Germany in a situation to 
resist Russia and France, in case Russia, aggrieved by the 
action of Germany at the Berlin Conference, should join hands 
with France in acts of hostility against the German Empire. 
In 1888 William I. died, and was succeeded by his son, Fred- 
erick III., who held the sovereignty but a few months, dying 
June 15, 1888. His son, William 11., succeeded him. 

The British Sway in India ; the Indian Mutiny. — The British 
sway had by degrees extended itself over India. Under the 
rule of the Marquis of Wellesley (1798-1805), and partly 
through the victories of Sir Arthur Wellesley (afterwards the 
Duke of Wellington), " the policy of intervention and annexa- 
tion " was pursued with brilliant success. There was hostility 
to the British rule among the Mohammedans in India, how- 
ever, and there was distrust among the Hindoos. A revolt 
among the native Sepoy troops in 1857 was attended with sav- 
age cruelties. There was a frightful massacre of women and 
children at Cawnpore, before General Havelock could arrive 



536 THE WESTERN POWERS AND EGYPT 

for its relief. This gallant soldier, however, raised the siege 
of Lucknow, Avhich the English defended amid incredible hard- 
ships. Gradually the rebellion was crushed, and the re-con- 
quest of the country was completed by Sir Colin Campbell. 
One consequence of the revolt was the entire transference of 
the government of India from the East India Company to the 
crown. Under the ministry of Disraeli, and on his motion, 
the Queen added to her title that of Empress of India (1877). 

Afghanistan. — The British were anxious to check the grow- 
ing power of Afghanistan, and in 1838 declared war against 
Dost Mohammed, one of the three rulers of the country whose 
seat of power was in Cabul. The British attack was at first 
successful, but afterwards, in 1842, the entire British army was 
destroyed in passing through the Kurd-Cabul Pass. Another 
British ami}' under General Pollock forced the Khyber Pass 
and took vengeance on Cabul. Dost jMohammed became an 
ally of the English, but his son. Slier Ali Khan, carried on in- 
trigues Avith Russia, which led to a second Afghan war with 
England. In this war, after severe struggles, the Afghans 
were defeated by General Roberts. The real significance of 
England's attitude tow^ards Afghanistan had been her desire 
to prevent the further approach of Russia in the direction of 
Herat. By further events in that country, in 1885, Russia and 
England were brought to the verge of war. 

The Western Powers and Egypt. — Ismail Pasha, the Khedive 
of Egypt, was an admirer of Napoleon III. and of the French. 
He obtained from the Sultan repeated concessions which made 
Egypt almost independent of Turkey ; but his extravagant out- 
lays of public* funds involved him in a financial embarrassment 
which furnished an occasion to England and France to inter- 
meddle still more in Egyptian affairs. In 1878 he sold to the 
British government his shares in the Suez Canal, and the Eng- 
lish and French practically took control of the financial admin- 
istration of the country. The most lucrative stations were 
filled by foreigners. The taxes were intolerable. An attempt 
to throw off the yoke resulted in the deposition of Isnuiil by 



GREAT BRITAIN AND HER COLONIES 537 

the Sultan on the demand of England and France, and his 
weak son Tewfik Pasha succeeded him. In 1881 Arabi Pasha, 
a military officer, led a revolt, in which, however, he and his 
troops showed little spirit. The English fleet bombarded Alex- 
andria, and set the city on fire. Arabi withdrew his troops to 
Cairo. The fortifications of Selelkebir were taken by the Eng- 
lish general. Sir Garnet Wolseley, almost without resistance, 
and Arabi was captured and banished. Egypt thus fell into a 
helpless dependence on' England, and the French influence de- 
clined. But the English were troubled by a false prophet 
called El Mahdi, with a host of followers in the Soudan, partly 
instigated by Moslem fanaticism, but largely by their hatred 
for the Egyptian government over that region. The British 
suffered several defeats, but finally vanquished Osman Digna, 
a partisan of the Mahdi, and drove him into the mountains. 
Then the English government adopted the extraordinary meas- 
ure of sending General Gordon to Khartoum, his errand being 
to pacify the tribes of the Soudan, to provide for the deliver- 
ance of the garrisons, and to arrange terms of accommodation 
with El Mahdi. This last it was found impossible to accom- 
plish. Gordon was shut up in Khartoum, and when after a 
long delay, a large force under General Wolseley was sent to 
his relief, it was found to be too late, as he had been betrayed 
and slain. 

Great Britain and Her Colonies. — Canada had been ceded to 
Great Britain in 1763, and in 1774 the royal government was 
introduced, which brought in the inhuman criminal code of 
England. In 1791 under Pitt, the two parts of Canada were 
made separate provinces. A constitution was granted, which 
provided for an elective legislature for each. The governors, 
the executive councils, and the legislative councils were to be 
appointed by the crown, and the administration was subject to 
the Colonial Office in London. Upper and Lower Canada, 
after a period of antagonism, were united in 1841, and under 
the enlightened administration of Lord Elgin (1847-1854) a 
better feeling arose. In 1867 the Dominion of Canada wa§ 




30 Long-itude T.a 



B 












r\^V t 



'Suloni^.^ C5''^^^*sos "^v! 






, . O 












OS 



4- ^c-^'S- -i-^ '^^^^^#^ 




540 RELATIONS OF ENGLAND AND IRELAND 

constituted, which has a Senate and a House of Commons. 
The authority of the crown is represented by the governor- 
general and the council. Legislation is subject to a veto from 
the sovereign. It is in effect a federal union of Nova Scotia, 
New Brunswick, Manitoba, British Columbia, Prince Edward 
Island, and the Canadas — Upper Canada receiving the name 
of Ontario, and Lower Canada being named Quebec. In Aus- 
tralia, too, the British power has steadily increased. This con- 
tinent, which covers an area of three million square miles, was 
first colonized by the dregs of English society, as Port Jack- 
son was in 1788 made a penal station for convicts from Eng- 
land. After 1810 the character of this settlement (which for 
a long time continued to be erroneously called Botany Bay), 
as well as that of Van Diemen's Land, was much improved. 
New colonies were formed in western, eastern, and southern 
Australia. Australian wool became an important article of 
commerce. Victoria and New South Wales owe their growth 
to gold mines. Melbourne, the chief city of Victoria, was 
planted in 1837. At about this time the first regular and per- 
manent settlement was made in New Zealand, which became a 
colony independent of Australia in 1841. 

England and Ireland. — The disaffection of the Irish, and 
their antipathy to English rule, broke out in different forms, 
as circumstances changed. Eor a long time the demand was 
for "Catholic emancipation." This was granted; but most 
of the English concessions were made under such a pressure, 
and in appearance so grudgingly, that little was accomplished 
by them in placating Irish hostility. The outcry against tithes 
for the support of the Protestant Established Church was to a 
great extent quieted in 1838, when the odious features of this 
tax were removed. The act disestablishing the Irish Protestant 
Church, carried by Mr. Gladstone in 1869, and put in execu- 
tion in 1871, took away one of the great grievances of which 
the Irish nation had to complain. The repeal of the legisla- 
tive union of England and Ireland was the watchword of 
O'Connell and his followers. In one form or another, the de- 



RELATIONS OF ENGLAND AND IRELAND 



541 



mand for local self-government or independence, which has 

been more lately urged under the name of " home rule/' has 

been kept up with little intermission. It is about the s|)ecial 

question of land reform 

that the most bitter 

conflicts . have centered. 

The ownership of a 

great part of the land 

in Ireland by a few pe 

sons ; the fact that gre^ 1 

obstacles and great e: 

penses — difficulties c t 

late somewhat lightene 1 




Gladstoxe 



— have existed in th 
way of the transferenc 
of land, if any one ha 1 
the means to purchas 
it ; the circumstance 
that the owners hav 
generally been not re: 
idents, but absent land 
lords ; that, in cases of 
dispute with tenants, 

the laws were for a long period not framed in their interest ; that 
the management of estates was left to agents or middlemen ; 
that multitudes of tenants, whose holdings were small, could 
glean a bare subsistence from the soil, were doomed to famine 
if the potato-crop failed, and, when unable to pay the rent, 
were liable to eviction, that is, to be turned out of doors, with 
their families, to perish; — these have been causes sufficient 
to give rise to endless disputes and conflicts. Add to these 
facts the inbred hostility arising from differences of race and 
religion ; the memory, on the part of the Irish, of centuries of 
misgovernment, and the feeling that the lands held by suffer- 
ance were wrested from their ancestors by force, — and the 
animosity manifested in revolts and outrages is easily ex- 



542 RELATIONS OF ENGLAND AND IRELAND 

plained. The English government, in a series of measures, — 
in connection with Avhich acts of coercion for preventing and 
punishing violence have been passed, — undertook to lessen 
the evils that exist, and to produce a better state of feeling. 
The hopes connected with the passage of these measures were 
very imperfectly realized. 

The Fenian movement, designed to secure Irish independence 
by force, was organized in the United States in 1857. By unit- 
ing with similar Irish brotherhoods, it extended itself in Great 
Britain as well as America, collected large funds, and (1866) 
made ineffectual attempts to invade Canada. An armed rising 
in Ireland shortly after, under Tenian leadership, was sup- 
pressed. The national agitation consequent on these proceed- 
ings in Ireland, issued in the organization (1870) of the Home 
Rule party, wdth Mr. Isaac Butt a leading promoter. The 
object was to secure an Irish Parliament for Irish affairs, and 
for the control of Irish resources; the Imperial Parliament 
being left to deal with imperial affairs. In this period (about 
1874) Mr. Parnell grew to be conspicuous in politics. He be- 
came the leader of the Home Kule members of the House of 
Commons, who sought, by obstructing the progress of business, 
to compel the English government to withdraw its measures of 
coercion, and to legislate in accordance with the views of him- 
self and his associates. The "obstructionists," by joining the 
Tories, effected the retirement of the Gladstone Cabinet (1885). 
In Ireland, a system of " boycotting " w^as adopted for the pun- 
ishment of landlords guilty of evicting tenants. This led to 
deeds of violence and blood. Parnell died in 1891. A Glad- 
stone Cabinet again came into power in 1892, with an avowed 
object of securing Home Bule for Ireland, but did not succeed 
in its purpose. In 1895 Lord Salisbury, the leader of the 
oj^position, acceded to office. 



CHAPTER LXXX 

THE UNITED STATES SINCE 1815 ; MEXICO ; SOUTH AMER- 
ICAN STATES ; EASTERN ASIA 

End of the Federal Party. — The end of the war with Great 
Britain (1812-1815) was marked by the extinction of the Fed- 
eral party. But the opposing party were now equally zealous 
for the perpetuity of the Union, and were quite ready to act on 
a liberal construction of the Constitution with respect to the 
powers conferred on the general government. This had been 
shown in the purchase of Louisiana : it was further exem- 
plified in 1816 in the establishment of a national bank and 
in the enactment of a protective tariff. Then, and until 
1832, presidential candidates were nominated by Congres- 
sional ^^ caucuses." James Monroe (1817-1825) received the 
votes of all the states but three. The absence of party 
division has caused his time to be designated as " the era 
of good feeling." 

Purchase of Florida. — Slaves in Georgia and Alabama fre- 
quently escaped from their masters, and fled for shelter to the 
swamps of Florida. The Creek and Seminole Indians were 
always disposed to aid them. In 1816 General Andrew Jack- 
son was appointed to conduct an expedition against the Semi- 
noles. He came into conflict with the Spanish authorities in 
Florida, where he seized Spanish forts, and built a fort of his 
own. Finally, in 1819, the Floridas were purchased of Spain 
for five million dollars, and the United States gave up its claim 
to the extensive territory west of the Sabine Eiver, which was 
known afterwards as Texas. This became a part of Mexico 
two years later. 

543 



pf 




t^., r°^^ / ALASKA 

/ SCALE, ONE-HALF OF LARGE MAP. 

103 Longitude West ffbm.Washinj^ton 83 



546 THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE 

Slavery ; the Missouri Compromise In 1820 a sectional strug- 
gle arose in Congress, on the question of the admission of Mis- 
souri as a State with a constitution permitting slavery. The 
slave trade had been carried on by the States separately before 
the National Constitution was formed. It was abolished by 
Congress in 1808, the earliest date allowed by the Constitution 
for the power to abolish it to be exercised. In the North, 
where the slaves were less numerous, laws for gradual emanci- 
pation were early passed. But the rapid increase of slaves in 
the South, the growing demand for cotton, and the stimulus 
given to the production of it by the cotton gin, made the pros- 
pect of emancipation by legislative action less probable as time 
advanced. The American Colonization Society was formed in 
1811 ; and the fallacious hope w^as entertained by many that 
the negroes might be carried back to the Liberian settlement 
on the African coast. The extension of slavery in the territory 
northwest of the Ohio had been prevented by the Congress- 
ional Ordinance of 1787. When the question of the admission 
of Missouri to the Union came up, the members of Congress 
from the North and the members from the South were in 
hostile array on the point, and a dangerous excitement was 
kindled. By the exertions of Henry Clay, the Missouri Com- 
promise was adopted, by which the new State was admitted 
with slavery in it; but, as an equivalent, slavery was pro- 
hibited forever in all the remainder of the Louisiana purchase 
of 36° 30' north latitude, the southern boundary of ISIissouri. 

The Monroe Doctrine. — In his annual message in 1823, 
President Monroe said that the United States would consider 
any attempt of the Holy Alliance, which w^as then engaged in 
its crusade against liberty in Europe, to extend its system into 
this country or any interference on its part for the purpose of 
controlling the destiny of the American States, an unfriendly 
action towards the United States. This is the Monroe doc- 
trine, which is an intimation on the part of the United States 
of a right to resist attempts of European powers to alter the 
constitutions of American communities. 



ADMINISTRATIONS 0¥ ADAxMS AND JACKSON 547 

John Quincy Adams At the expiration of Monroe's second 

term, there was no choice for President by the people, and John 
Quincy Adams was chosen by the House of Kepresentatives. 
Henry Clay became Secretary of State. Clay was a leader 
of the party called by their adversaries the " loose construc- 
tionists " of the Constitution. They favored such measures as 
the protective tariff, national bank, and internal improvements, 
undertaken by Congress. The party now took the name of 
National Eepublicans, which was afterwards exchanged for 
that of Whigs. To the opposite party of " strict construction- 
ists," who, however, differed among themselves as to certain 
measures (as for example, the tariff) belonged John C. Calhoun 
of South Carolina, and Andrew Jackson, To Jackson's fol- 
lowers the name of Democrats was applied. 

Jackson's Administration. — Jackson became President in 1829. 
He was a fearless man and an ardent patriot, with a choleric 
temper and an imperious will. The custom, which had begun 
with Jefferson, of supplanting office holders of the opposite 
political party by supporters of the administration, now be- 
came a settled feature of American political life. This came 
to be called the spoils system, from the maxim once quoted 
in defense of it, that " to the victors belong the spoils." 

Nullification. — During Jackson's administration there oc- 
curred the "nullification" crisis. In 1828 a new protective 
tariff had been passed, which was regarded in the South, espe- 
cially in South Carolina, as extremely unjust and injurious. 
After the protective policy had been adopted, and when, under 
its shield, manufacturing had been extensively established in 
the North, the former adversaries of protection, with Webster, as 
well as Clay, who had been a protectionist before, thought it 
unfair and destructive to do away with the tariff. Its adversa- 
ries denounced it as unconstitutional. Calhoun and his fol- 
lowers, moreover, contended that nullification is legal and 
admissible ; in other words, that a law of Congress may be set 
aside by a State within its own limits, provided it is considered 
by that State as a gross infraction of the Constitution. There 



548 WAR WITH MEXICO 

was a memorable debate on this subject in 1830, in the United- 
States Senate, when the state-rights theory was advocated by 
Robert Y. Hayne of South Carolina, and the opposite doctrine 
defended by Webster. In 1832 South Carolina passed an 
ordinance declaring that the tariff laws of 1828 and 1832 were 
null and void, and not binding in that State. President Jack- 
son issued a spirited proclamation in which the nullification 
doctrine was repudiated, and the opposite, or national, theory 
was affirmed, and the President's resolute intention to execute 
the laws of the United States was announced. The difficulty 
was ended by the compromise tariff introduced by Henry Clay, 
providing for the gradual reduction of duties (1833). 

The President was hostile to the National Bank, and being 
unable to secure the cooperation of Congress for the purpose, 
he himself ordered that no further deposits of public funds in 
the bank should be made. Por this he was censured by the 
Senate. 

Anti-Slavery Agitation. — At this time the agitation respect- 
ing slavery was increasing. In the North, a party arose 
which denounced slavery as iniquitous and called for immedi- 
ate emancipation. The leader of this party was William Lloyd 
Garrison, and its most captivating orator was Wendell Phillips. 
There were various types and degrees of anti-slavery sentiment. 
In the South, slavery was defended as necessary under the cir- 
cumstances, and as capable of justification on moral and scrip- 
tural grounds. The people of the Southern States felt an 
intense enmity to '' abolitionism." 

Annexation of Texas ; War with Mexico. — In 1835 Texas 
declared its independence of Mexico. Under the leadership of 
General Sam Houston, the Texans defeated the Mexicans under 
Santa Ana at the San Jacinto (1836). In 1845, largely through 
the agency of Calhoun, Texas was annexed to the United States 
by an act of Congress. A consequence of the acquisition of 
the new territory was a war with Mexico, in which the United 
States troops, under General Zachary Taylor, won notable vic- 
tories at Palo Alto and Monterey in 1846, and at Buena Vista in 



CONFLICTS RELATING TO SLAVERY 549 

1847. General Winfielcl Scott captured Vera Cruz, fought Ms 
way through the pass of Cerro Grorclo, and at length entered the 
City of Mexico (Sept. 14, 1847), and compelled the Mexicans 
to agree to the treaty of Gaudaloupe Hidalgo (1848). By this 
treaty all claim on Texas to the Rio Grande was relinquished, 
together with the provinces of Upper California and New 
Mexico. 

The Wilmot Proviso. — President Jackson had been succeeded 
at the expiration of his second term by Martin Van Buren. He 
held the presidential office for a single term, and in the ensu- 
ing campaign Henry Clay was defeated for the presidency by 
James K. Polk, who held the office for two terms. During the 
latter part of his second term, the Wilmot Proviso was pro- 
posed in Congress, excluding slavery from all territory to be 
acquired from Mexico. On the nomination of General Taylor 
to the presidency by the Whigs in 1848, a Free-Soil party 
was organized upon the basis of opposition to the extension of 
slavery in the territories subject to national jurisdiction. The 
Whig Convention refused to ap]3rove the Wilmot Proviso, and 
although Taylor was elected, his party lost a portion of its ad- 
herents, and the Free-Soil party, the precursor of the Eepubli- 
can party, gained in strength. 

Clay's Compromise. — President Taylor died July 9, 1850, 
and was succeeded by his Vice President, Millard Fillmore. 
The contest in Congress over the application of California for 
admission to the Union was adjusted by Clay's Compromise, 
by which California was admitted as a free State, and Utah 
and New Mexico were organized into territories without any 
mention of slavery. In a celebrated speech on the 7th of 
March, Webster gave as his reason for not insisting on the 
Wilmot Proviso, that the physical character of the new terri- 
tories of itself excluded slavery from them. 

The Kansas Troubles. — Fillmore was succeeded by Franklin 
Pierce, and in 1854 the territories of Kansas and Nebraska, 
from both of which slavery was excluded by the Missouri Com- 
promise, sought admission to the Union. A bill was intro- 



550 THE SECESSION OF STATES 

diieed by Douglas of Illinois which practically repealed the 
compromise, and left the matter of toleration of slavery to be 
determined by the settlers. Companies of Americans were 
thereupon organized in the Northern States in order to form 
permanent settlements in Kansas ; while, in order to prevent 
that country from becoming a free State, inhabitants of Mis- 
souri crossed the line to attack and harass the colonists. 

The Dred-Scott Case. — James Buchanan became President 
in 1857. The Supreme Court of the United States decided 
that neither negro slaves nor their descendants, slave or free, 
could become citizens of the United States ; adding incident- 
all}' that the jNIissouri Compromise was unconstitutional and 
that Congress had no right to prohibit the carrj^ ing of slaves 
into any State or Territory. This decision, coming after the 
attitude taken by the government at Washington with refer- 
ence to the Kansas troubles, greatly strengthened the numbers 
and stimulated the determination of the Republican party in 
the United States. 

The John Brown Raid. — At about this time, John Brown, a 
brave old man of the Puritan type, excited the resentment and 
apprehensions of the South by attempting to stir up an insur- 
rection of slaves in Virginia. With a handful of armed men, 
he seized the United States arsenal at Harper's Ferry in 
Virginia. Half of his followers were killed, and he himself 
was captured, and after trial and conviction was hanged by 
the State authorities (Dec. 2, 1859). 

Abraham Lincoln; Secession of the States. — In the election of 
1800, Abraham Lincoln, the candidate of the Republican party, 
received the electoral vote of every Northern State except New 
Jersey. The Southern leaders, convinced that the North 
in the future would be in a position to dictate the policy of 
the general government, contemplated the permanent estab- 
lishment of a separate slave-holding confederacy, or the 
securing of constitutional guarantees that slavery should be 
preserved. South Carolina accordingly passed an Ordinance 
of Secession (Dec. 20, 1860), and was followed in this act by 



THE CIVIL WAR 551 

Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. 
The delegates of the seceding States met at Montgomery, Ala- 
bama, formed a new government under the name of the Con- 
federate States of America (Feb. 8, 1861), and elected Jefferson 
Davis President, and Alexander H. Stephens Vice President. 
The United States government purposed to send supplies to 
the garrison of Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, but the 
Confederates attacked the fortress, which Major Anderson was 
compelled to surrender after a gallant defense. President 
Lincoln immediately issued a ^jroclamation calling for seventy- 
five thousand volunteers to serve for three months, and sum- 
moned Congress together. On April 15, 1861, Virginia, 
Arkansas, Tennessee, and Xorth Carolina joined the Southern 
Confederacy, the capital of which was established at Ptich- 
mond. Great Britain recognized the Confederate States as 
having the rights of belligerents. France took the same step. 
In the North there was a great popular uj)rising, and the 
President's call for troops met with an enthusiastic response. 

Events in the War in 1861-1862. — Only a brief account can 
be given of the events of the war. General Winfield Scott was 
at first in command of the Union forces, and General J. E. 
Johnston of the forces of the Confederates. It was imagined 
at the North that there could be an easy and quick advance 
of the Federal forces to Pichmondj but the troops were not 
drilled, and the ^^reparations for a campaign were wholly 
inadequate. The Union troops were defeated at Bull Run, or 
Manassas, and Washington was thrown into a panic (July 21, 
1861). 

Congress at once adojjted energetic measures for raising 
a large army and for building a navy. General George 
B. McClellan was placed in command of the forces. It was 
foreseen on both sides, that the result of the conflict might 
depend on the course taken by foreign powers, especially by 
England. The South counted upon the demand for cotton as 
certain to secure English helx3, direct or indirect, for the 
Southern cause. Mr. Charles Francis Adams was selected by 



552 THE CIVIL WAR 

Mr. Seward, the Secretary of State, to represent the Union at 
the Court of St. James. The Confederates sent abroad Mr. 
Mason and Mr. Slid ell to procure the full recognition of the 
new Confederacy by England and France. The Trent, on 
which they sailed, was stopped by Cax)tain Wilkes of the 
United States navy, and the commissioners taken from it. 
This breach of international law threatened war, which was 
averted by the surrender of the two captives to England. 

England, however, refused to assent to Louis Napoleon's 
proposal to recognize the independence of the seceding States ; 
but the laxness of the British government in not preventing 
the fitting out of vessels of war in her j^orts, to prey on 
American commerce, excited indignation in the United 
States. Palmerston was at the head of the cabinet, and Lord 
John Russell was Secretary for Foreign Affairs. For the 
depredations of the Alabama, the tribunal chosen to arbitrate 
at the end of the war, and meeting at Geneva, condemned 
England to pay to the United States an indemnity of fifteen 
and a half millions of dollars. 

Early in 1862 Fort Henry on the Tennessee, and Fort 
Donelson on the Cumberland, were taken by General Ulysses 
S. Grant, who led the land forces, and Commodore A. H. 
Foote, who commanded the gunboats. At Fort Donelson 
nearly fifteen thousand prisoners were captured. Grant fought 
the battle of Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh, which continued 
two days (April 6, 7), and ended in the retreat of the Con- 
federates. Their general, A. S. Johnston, was killed, and the 
command of his troops devolved on Beauregard. Grant, who 
had been reenforced by Buell, drove the Confederates back to 
Corinth, Mississippi, nineteen miles distant. The capture of 
Island Number Ten, by Pope, followed; and soon Memphis 
was in the hands of the Union forces. Farragut ran the 
gauntlet of the forts at New Orleans (April 24), and captured 
that city. 

1\\ the East, the Union forces had not been so successful. 
The iron-sheathed frigate Merrimac destroyed the Union fleet 



THE CIVIL WAR; EMANCIPATION 553 

at Hampton Roads (March 9), but was driven back to Gosport 
by the timely appearance of the iron-clad Union vessel, the 
Monitor. McClellan undertook to approach Richmond by the 
peninsula. The campaign lasted from March to July, and 
included, besides various other engagements, the important 
battles of Fair Oaks and of Malvern Hill (July 1). At the 
end of June, the Union army was driven back to Harrison's 
Landing on the James River. Meantime the Confederate 
general, Jackson, in the valley of the Shenandoah, repulsed 
Fremont, Banks, and McDowell, and joined General Robert 
E. Lee, the commander of the Confederate forces, who now 
pressed forward towards Washington. Pope was defeated at 
Ma^nassas (Aug. 29, 30), and Lee crossed the Potomac into 
Maryland. He was met by McClellan, and defeated at Antie- 
tam (Sept. 17), but was able to withdraw in safety across the 
river. McClellan was superseded by Burnside, who was de- 
feated by Lee at Fredericksburg (Dec. 13). 

Emancipation. — On the 1st of January, 1863, President 
Lincoln issued a proclamation declaring all slaves in States or 
parts of States in rebellion, to be free. This act was legally 
possible only as a war measure, or as an exercise of the 
right of a commander. The refusal of the _ government to 
carry on the war for the direct purpose of emancipation, or to 
adopt measures of this character before, — measures which the 
Constitution did not permit, — was not understood in foreign 
countries, and, in England especially, had tended to chill 
sympathy with the Northern cause. Regiments of negro 
soldiers were now formed. 

The First Six Months of 1863. — Hooker succeeded Burnside 
in command of the Potomac Army, and was defeated by Lee 
at Chancellorsville (May 3). There "Stonewall" Jackson, 
one of the best and bravest of the Confederate generals, lost 
his life. Lee now crossed the river, and entered Pennsyl- 
vania. This was the critical moment in the struggle. Great 
pains were taken by such people in the North as were dis- 
affected with the administration at Washington to manifest 



554 



THE CIVIL WAR 



hostility to the war, or to the method in which it was prose-, 
cuted. A riot broke out in the cit}^ of New York while the 
drafts for troops were in progress, and it was several days 
before it was put down. The defeat of Lee by jNIeade at 
Gettysburg (July 1-3) turned the tide against the Confeder- 
ates, and their army 
again retired beyond 
the Potomac. At the 
same time, in the 
west, General Grant 
ca})tured Vicksburg 
with upwards of 
thirty thousand men 
(July 4), and Port 
Hudson was taken. 
The Mississippi was 
thus opened to its 
mouth. The Union 
navy acted effectively 
on the Atlantic coast, 
and at the .end of 
the year nearly all 
the Southern ports 
were closed by block- 
ades. 

Victories at Chattanooga. — Grant assumed command of the 
military division of the Mississippi, including the region 
between the Alleghanies and that river. With the Army of 
the Cumberland under Thomas, with reenforcements from 
Vicksburg under Sherman and from the Army of the Poto- 
mac under Hooker, he won the victories of Lookout Moun- 
tain and Missionary Ridge, at Chattanooga, Tennessee (Nov. 
24 and 25). This success opened a path for the Union 
forces into Alabama and the Atlantic States. Sherman was 
sent to reenforce Burnside in Tennessee, and defeated Long- 
street. 




Grant 



THE SURRENDER OP LEE 555 

To the Surrender of Lee, — Grant was made lieutenant-gen- 
eral, or first in command under tlie President (Mar. 7, 1864). 
Three attempts to reach Richmond, made severally by 
McClellan, Hooker, and Burnside, had failed,, as Lee's two 
aggressive movements had been defeated at Antietam and 
Gettysburg. The border States in the AVest were in the 
hands of the Union forces, as well as the lower Mississippi; 
and the blockade was maintained along the Atlantic coast. 
The plan now was for Sherman to secure Georgia, and to 
march eastward and northward into the heart of the Confed- 
eracy, starting at Chattanooga. Military operations, which 
had been prosecuted over so vast an extent of territory, now 
began to have a unity which they had greatly missed before. 
Grant personally took command of the Army of the Potomac. 
His object was to get between Lee's army and Eichmond. 
This object was not effected; but the sanguinary battle of the 
AVilderness (May 5, 6) and other subsequent battles had the 
effect, in the course of six weeks, to push Lee back within 
the fortifications of Petersburg and Richmond. During the 
long siege of these places, diversions were attempted by Early 
in Maryland and Pennsylvania; but he was repelled and 
defeated by Sheridan. The Confederate vessel Alabama Avas 
sunk in the English Channel by the Kearsarge (June, 1864). 
Farragut captured the forts in Mobile Bay. Sherman's forces, 
after a series of engagements, entered Atlanta, Georgia, which 
the Confederates had been compelled to evacuate (Sept. 2). A 
detachment was sent by Sherman, under Thomas, after Hood, 
which defeated him at Nashville (Dec. 15, 16). Sherman 
marched through Georgia, and entered Savannah (Dec. 21). 
On Feb. 1, 1865, he commenced his movement northward. 
The attempts of General J. E. Johnston to check his advance 
were ineffectual. Sherman entered Columbia, South Ca,rolina, 
and pushed on to Raleigh; Johnston, whose numbers were in- 
ferior, retiring as he approached. The efforts of Lee to break 
away from Grant, in order to effect a junction with Johnston, 
did not succeed. Sheridan's victory over Lee at Five Forks 



556 



DEATH OF LINCOLN 



(April 1) compelled him to evacuate Petersburg. He was pur- 
sued and surrounded by Grant, and surrendered liis army at 
Appomattox Court House (April 9). The Union forces had 
entered Richmoud (April 2). Johnston surrendered his forces 
to Sherman (April 26). Jefferson Davis was captured by a 
body of Union cavalry in Georgia (May 10). 

Murder of Lincoln. — The joy felt in the North over the com- 
plete victor}' of the 
Union cause was 
turned into grief by 
the assassination of 
l*resident Lincoln 
(April 14), who had 
begun his second 
term on the 4th 
of Marcli. He was 
shot in a theater in 
Washington, by a 
fanatic n a m e d 
Booth, wlio imag- 
ined that lie Avas 
avenging wrongs of 
the South. An at- 
tempt was made at 
the same time to 
murder Secretary 
Seward in his bed. 
The assailant inflicted on him severe but not fatal wounds. 
Mr. Lincoln had taken a strong hold on the affections of the 
people. He combined firmness and loyalty to his convictions 
of dut}' with a large store of plain common sense, with an 
even temper, and an abounding good-nature and kindness. 
Keeping steadily before him the prime object of the war, he 
inculcated, as he felt, malice toward none and charity for all. 
Amendments to the Constitution. — The Thirteenth Amend- 
ment to the Constitution, prohibiting slavery in the Ignited 




RECONSTRUCTION; GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION 557 

States, was declared in force Feb. 1, 18G5, and on July 28, 
1868, the Fourteenth Amendment went into effect, securing 
to all the freedmen the right of citizenship and equality 
under State law, and ordaining that the basis of the rep- 
resentation of each State in Congress should be reduced in 
proportion to any abridgment by State law of the right of 
suffrage in its male population. The Fifteenth Amendment 
(declared in force March 30, 1870) forbade the abridgment of 
the right to vote, on account of race, color, or previous con- 
dition of servitude. The effect of the amendments was to 
confer on the blacks the civil and political rights enjoyed by 
the whites. 

Reconstruction : Administration of Johnson. — Andrew John- 
son, Vice President, succeeded Lincoln, and became in- 
volved in a contest with the dominant Republican jjarty in 
Congress, on questions relating to the reconstruction of the 
State governments. He was impeached and tried by the Sen- 
ate (Feb. 24-May 26, 1868), but the number of votes for his 
conviction was one less than the number required. The debt 
of the United States at the close of the Avar had risen from 
about sixty-five millions of dollars to more than twenty-seven 
hundred millions of dollars. In addition to the resulting 
financial difficulties, the government was compelled to face 
many serious questions in the matter of reconstruction caused 
by the lack of cooperation upon the part of the intelligent 
people in the seceding States, the ignorance of the blacks, 
and the selfish greed of white adventurers who took the 
place of leaders among them. 

Grant's Administration. — On the expiration of Johnson's 
term, General Grant was raised to the presidency. It was 
complained that the new governments instituted in the South 
by the freedmen and their white coadjutors were grossly cor- 
rupt and incapable, and that their returning boards made 
false results of elections. On the other hand, it was com- 
plained that the opponents of these governments resorted to 
violence and fraud to intimidate their political adversaries, 



558 EVENTS SINCE THE CIVIL WAR 

and to keep them out of office. The troops of the United- 
States, whicli liad sustained tlie officers appointed by the 
blacks and by their white allies in several of the states, were 
at length partly withdrawn, and, as Hayes withdrew the last 
of the troops, political power was resumed throughout the 
South by the adverse party, or the class which had con- 
tended against what were derisively styled " carpet-bag " 
governments. 

Subsequent Events. — A difficulty arose in 1876 in conse- 
quence of a dispute about the result of the presidential elec- 
tion. Samuel J. Tilden had been the candidate of the 
Democratic party, and Kutherford B. Hayes the candidate 
of the Republican party. An Electoral Commission, which 
was appointed by Congress to decide the question, declared 
the latter to be chosen. In tlie next national election, the 
Republicans elected their candidate. General James A. Gar- 
field, but on July 2, 1881, a few months after his inaugura- 
tion, he Avas assassinated. The assassin was convicted of 
murder and was hung. Chester A. Arthur, the Vice Presi- 
dent, filled the presidential office for the remainder of the 
term. In 1884, for the first time since the retirement of 
Buchanan, the Democrats took the reins of power into their 
hands by electing Grover Cleveland to the presidency over 
James G. Blaine, the Republican candidate. Benjamin Har- 
rison, Republican, succeeded Cleveland as President in 1889. 
The McKinley TarifP Bill (1890), largely increasing the duty 
on some imports, was passed. In 1892 Cleveland was again 
elected to the presidency. That year was the four-hundredth 
anniversary of America's discovery. It was celebrated through- 
out the Union. In Chicago the Columbian Exhibition, or 
World's Fair, deserves mention as the most remarkable enter- 
prise of the kind which the world had seen. The revival of 
industry and the return of prosperity in the Southern States, 
as evidenced in various ways, and among others, by an exhi- 
bition or fair at Atlanta, Georgia, in 1895, are circumstances 
worthy of special record. 



MEXICO; CHINA AND JAPAN 559 

Mexico ; South America. — In December, 1861, France and 
England landed troops in Mexico to compel a satisfaction of 
their claims for losses suffered in Mexico by their subjects. 
Louis Napoleon had refused to recognize the Mexican Presi- 
dent, Juarez, and he hoped to check the progress of the 
United States by placing the Archduke Maximilian, brother 
of Francis Joseph of Austria, upon the throne. At the end 
of the Civil War, the government of the United States de- 
manded the withdrawal of the French troops. Maximilian, 
thus left to himself, was captured by the troops of Juarez, tried 
by court martial, and shot (1867). After the death of Juarez, 
in 1872, a series of leaders held the presidential office, the 
ablest of them being General Diaz, under whom much was 
done for the development of the country. Mexico has ad- 
vanced towards a stable government in Eepublican form. In 
South America, the power of Brazil increased. Dom Pedro II. 
succeeded his father in 1840 ; an effective plan for the gradual 
emancipation of slaves was adopted; public works, manufac- 
tures, and commerce were promoted. There were many wars 
with neighboring states, however, and many internal dis- 
sensions. H| By a bloodless revolution Dom Pedro II. was 
dethroned in November 1889, aiid a Eepublican form of 
government declaredJf In a war with Bolivia and Peru, 
respecting a. province between Chili and Peru, the Chilians 
gained many advantages and took possession of the whole 
province with its deposits of nitrate and guano. A treaty of 
peace between Chili and Bolivia was signed in 1884^ 

China and Japan. — At the end of the " opium war," waged by 
Great Britain against China, to compel the reception of that 
import by the Chinese Empire, five ports were made free to 
British trade, and Hong Kong was ceded to England. In 
1844 an advantageous treaty was concluded by the United 
States with China. In a subsequent war with Great Britain 
and France, the Chinese were defeated. The Taiping rebel- 
lion in 1850 is a very important domestic event in China in 
recent times. The leader. Hung Lew-tseuen, after gaining 



&t)0 CHINA AND JAPAN 

many successes involving an enormous destruction of life, was 
finally defeated and the revolt suppressed by the Chinese gov- 
ernment, with the help of foreign officials, and in particular 
of Major (afterwards General) Gordon. In 1853 Commodore 
Perry, of the United States Navy, first entered the harbor of 
Tokio, the capital of Japan, and the following year negotiated 
a treaty which opened certain ports to foreign trade. After 
much internal dissension, caused by opposition to the policy 
of foreign intercourse, the barriers in the way of trade and 
commerce have been removed, feudalism has been abolished 
(1871), and a constitution promulgated (1889). Institutions 
and customs of Western civilization have been rapidly intro- 
duced; Christian missionaries have been and are actively 
engaged in preaching and teaching. 

In. 1894 Chinese aggressions resulted in a war between the 
two nations, in which the Japanese showed that their army 
and navy had been brought to a state of great efliciency. 
They gained a series of signal advantages over the Chinese, 
by bringing the modern European methods of warfare against 
a system which proved to be primitive and inefficient. The 
result of the contest has been to increase the respect of other 
nations for Japan, and to bring that country into a more 
prominent position among modern states. 



CHAPTER LXXXI 

DISCOVEEY AND INVENTION; SCIENCE AND LITERATURE; 
• PROGRESS OF HUMANE SENTIMENT ; PROGRESS TOWARDS 
THE UNITY OF MANKIND 

As an era of invention and discovery the nineteenth cen- 
tury is the rival of the fourteenth. 

Geographical Discoveries. — In this century northern and cen- 
tral Asia have been made accessible. China has been traversed 
by a number of travelers, and the whole of India has been 
explored by the British. Speke, Grant, and Baker have dis- 
pelled the mystery regarding the source of the Nile; and the 
travels of Stanley, Livingstone, and others have opened up the 
hitherto " Dark Continent ^' of Africa. In the field of north- 
ern exploration, in the effort to find a northwest passage and 
to reach the pole, the names of Franklin, Kane, Greely, and 
Peary have become famous. 

Inventions. — The five preeminent inventions of the century 
are : (1) the steam engine, j)erf ected by James Watt, a Scotch- 
man (1736-1819) ; (2) the successful application of steam to 
navigation, by Robert Fulton, an American; (3) the loco- 
motive, by George Stephenson, an Englishman (1829); (4) 
the electric telegraph, by Wheatstone, an "Englishman, 
Oersted, a Dane, and Henry, an American; (5) the telephone, 
by Edison, an American. Tools and machines have been 
devised for the more easy, exact, and rapid produption of 
whatever costs labor. Scientific instruments, the telescope, 
the microscope, and the enginery of war have all been brought 
to a wonderful degree of perfection. Photography, the spec- 
troscope, the phonograph, and the kinetoscope are among the 
marvels of the age. 

561 



562 SCIENCE AND LTTERATUKE 

Science. — In astronomy, the French geometers Lagrange 
and Laphxce mark an imx^ortant epoch. Many signal achieve- 
ments in this, the oldest of the sciences, belong to the nine- 
teenth centnry. Among them is the discovery of the planet 
Neptune, made independently by Leverrier and by Adams. 
In chemistry, in biology, and in archaeology, the progress has 
been no less remarkable. 

Philosophy and Literature. — In the department of philosophy 
there lias been mucli activity in Trance, England, Scotland, 
Germany, and the United States. Among the names of those 
who have become eminent not only in this held but in political 
economy as well, is tliat of John Stuart Mill, an English.man 
(1800-1873). Franklin and Hamilton occupy a leading place 
among earlier American writers on political economy. The 
works of Ivicardo and of Malthus in tliis department of knowl- 
edge gained for themselves a permanent i:»lace. In history 
and general literature English writers have taken high rank. 
Among English historians of this century, Grote, Hallam, 
and Ereeman are eminent. The essay lias been a favorite 
form of literary expression, Macaulay and Carlyle being 
among the best known of English essayists. Among American 
essayists, Ealph AValdo Emerson (1803-1882) holds the first 
place. American historical writers of note are Bancroft, Mot- 
ley, Prescott, and Parkman. In the field of jurisprudence 
America has been eminent. Story, Kent, Wlieaton, are legal 
writers of world-wide celebrity. 

The novel lias reached a high state of perfection in the nine- 
teenth century, especially in England. Sir Walter Scott's 
Waverley Novels had an unbounded popularity. Dickens 
and Thackeray present pictures of society and common life. 
The novels of Mrs. Lewes (George Eliot) stand next in rank 
to the creations of Thackeray's genius. A later writer of 
much power is Stevenson. In the list of American novelists 
the foremost name is that of Nathaniel Hawthorne. Other 
names in the list are James Fenimore Cooper, Harriet 
Beecher Stowe, George W. Cable, and F. Marion Crawford. 



ART 563 

Washington Irving (1783-1859) published, among other works 
of merit, the Sketch Book, which gained for him an interna- 
tional reputation. In his tales as well as in his poems Edgar 
Allan Poe (1809-1849) exhibited the traits of a wild and som- 
ber genius. In France, the leading novelists of the century 
have been Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, and Madame Dude- 
vant (George Sand), and, in Eussia, Tolstoi, and Turgenieff, 
who presents admirable pictures of Eussian life. 

Of poetry much has been written in the nineteenth cen- 
tury which will never cease to delight the world, Alfred 
Tennyson (1809-1892), the poet laureate of England, held the 
first place among poets of his day. Browning (1812-1889), 
careless of rhythmical art, with a defiance of form, but pos- 
sessing much dramatic power, laid himself open to the charge 
of obscurity in descending to " the under-current " of the soul. 
In America, Longfellow (1807-1882), a poet of exquisite cul- 
ture, gained a great popularity. Lowell (1819-1891) has 
justly earned fame as a poet and critic. Other American- 
poets are Fitz-Greene Halleck, Bryant (1794-1878), and Whit- 
tier (1807-1892). In France, Victor Hugo won renown as a 
poet as well as a novelist. Theophile Gautier, critic and 
novelist, also stood high as a poet. Beranger is a song-writer 
of deserved fame. In the department of history French 
authorship has shone most brightly. Such are the talents of 
the French for lucid exposition that they claim, not without 
justice, to be the interpreters of European science to the 
world. The Germans have led the way in methodical investi- 
gations and exhaustive discussions. 

Art. — Chantrey (1788-1841) and Gibson (1791-1866) are 
high on the roll of English sculptors. Powers, Crawford, and 
Story are among the Americans, and Schwanthaler among 
the Germans, who have achieved distinction in their depart- 
ment of art. Of modern German painters, Overbeck, Von 
Schadow, Lessing, grandnephew of the poet, and Von Kaul- 
bach are the most celebrated. In England, Turner, Landseer, 
Hunt, Millais, and Sir Frederick Leighton may be mentioned; 



564 PROGRESS OF THE RACE 

while iu this connection the name of Euskin must not be 
omitted as one of the most eloquent and suggestive of the 
English writers on art. Of the French painters, Delaroche and 
Vernet have been mentioned in an earlier chapter. The 
modern French school is distinguished not only for technical 
skill and finish, but for a bold and peculiar method of treat- 
ment. To this school belong Delacroix, Meissonier, Gerome, 
Cabanel, Millet, Eosa Bonheur, Corot, and Daubigny. In 
America, work of a high order has been done by Peale, Weir, 
Church, Huntington, Kensett, Gifford, and others. 

In architecture, this century has witnessed the development 
in France, England, and Germany of the classic style of archi- 
tecture. A reaction in favor of the Gothic style arose against 
this tendency, and in Great Britain particularly, many Gothic 
churches have been erected. In music, Germany holds the 
palm with a list of eminent names which includes Schu- 
bert, Spohr, Weber, Meyerbeer, Wagner, Schumann, and 
Mendelssohn. 

Progress toward the Unity of Mankind. — The path of human 
progress has led in the direction of unity as the ultimate goal. 
It is, however, a unity in variety toward which the course of 
history has moved. The development and growth of distinct 
nations, each after its own type, and, not less, the freedom of 
the individual to realize the destiny intended for him by 
nature, are necessary to the full development of mankind, 
necessary to the perfection of the race. The final unity that 
is sought is to be reached, not by stifling the capacities of 
human nature, but by the complete unfolding of them in all 
their diversity. The modern era has made an approach towards 
this higher unity that is to coexist with a rich and manifold 
development. An enlightened man, Prince Albert of England, 
remarked in a public address (1850): "Xobody who has paid 
any attention to the loeculiar features of our present era will 
doubt for a moment that we are living at a period of most 
wonderful transition, which tends rapidly to accomplish that 
great end to which, indeed, all history points, the realization 



RESULTS OF MISSIONS 565 

of the unity of manMnd I Not a unity which breaks down the 
limits, and levels the peculiar characteristics of the different 
nations of the earth, but rather a unity the result and product 
of those very national varieties and antagonistic qualities." 

Results of Missions. — In carrying forward missionary work 
during the nineteenth century, the Bible has been translated 
into numerous languages. Missionaries, as in the early days 
of the Church, have reduced the languages of uncultivated 
peoples to writing, and made the beginning of native litera- 
tures. Schools, colleges, and printing presses follow in the 
path of the preachers. The contributions made to philology 
and to other branches of science by missionary preachers and 
explorers are of high value. As far as the number of con- 
verts is concerned, progress has been more rapid, as was the 
case in the first Christian centuries, among uncivilized tribes. 
The reception of Christianity is more slow in a country like 
China, and among the Aryan inhabitants of India. But the 
influence exerted by missions in such communities is not to 
be measured by the number of converts. Moreover, history 
has often shown that, in the spread of the Christian religion, 
the first steps are the most slow and difficult : they are like 
the early operations in a siege. Sir Bartle Frere writes thus : 
" Statistical facts can in no way convey any adequate idea of 
the work done in any part of India. The effect is enormous 
where there has not been a single avowed conversion. The 
teaching of Christianity amongst a hundred and sixty millions 
of civilized, industrious Hindus and Mohammedans in India, 
is effecting changes, moral, social, and political, which for 
extent and rapidity in effect are far more extraordinary than 
any that have been witnessed in modern Europe." Of the 
same tenor is an opinion expressed in strong terms by Sir 
Henry Lawrence, Governor-General of India during the mutiny 
of 1857, and a most competent judge. In the recent period the 
religions of the non-Christian nations have been studied more 
thoroughly, and the true and praiseworthy elements in them 
have been better appreciated. 





II 


^DEX 


a as in ale 




i as in tin 


a " " senate 




" " old 


a " " hat 




o " " propose 


a " " care 




6 " " not 


a " " arm 




ti = French and German ti 


a " " ask 




u =: French eu 


a " " awe 




■e, -eh as in -ehaos 


a obscure 




g " " gem 


e as in eve 




H = strongly aspirated h 


e " " depend 




K = German ch 


6 " " met 




n like ni in minion 


e obscure 




N = the nasal sound in French 


i as in light 




§ =z 



Abderrahman III. ( abd'er- 

man), 231, 281. 
Ab'^lard, 300. 
Abolition movement, see Anti- 

ery. 
Academy, French, 460. 
Acadians, expelled, 450. 
A-ehae'ans, 63, 64. 
A^hil'les, 67. 
A 'ere, taken by siege in Third 

sade, 276. 
Ac'tium, battle of, 166. 
Adams, astronomer, 562. 
Adams, Charles Francis, 551. 
Adams, John, 455, 456, 459, 

President, 498. 
Adams, John Quincy, President 
Adams, Samuel, 454. 
Addison, 462. 



Slav- 



Cru- 



496 



547. 



Adelheid (a'del-hit), queen of Otto 
I., 259. 

Adol'phus, Gusta'vus, k. of Sweden, 
398. 

Adrian VI., Pope, 378, 379. 

Adriauo'ple, battle of, 208. 

Ae'gospot'ami, destruction of Athe- 
nian fleet at, 92. 

Aene'as, 116. 

Aeo'lians, 62. 

Aescliines (es'ki-neez), Athenian 
orator, 100. 

Aeschylus (es'ki-lus), Athenian 
tragic poet, 85. 

Aethelred (eth'el-red) II., the Un- 
ready, 246. 

Ae'thelstan, 246. 

Aetius (a-e'shi-us), a Hun, Eoman 
general, 211 ; defeats Attila, 212. 

Afghan'istan', British movements 
in, 512, 536. 



567 



568 



INDEX 



Africa, the "Dark Continent," 
opened, 561. 

Agamem'non, 67. 

Agincourt (a'zhax'koor'), battle of, 
318. 

Agni (ag-ne), 21. 

Agrarian laws in Rome ; optimates 
cause outbreaks, 147, 148. 

Ah'riman, 54. 

Aix-la-Chapelle (aks-la-sha'pel') , 
peace of, 445 ; Congress of, 507. 

Alabama, the privateer, 552, 555. 

Al'ans, the, 209. 

Al'aric, leader of the Visigoths, 
twice threatens Rome ; his retreat 
purchased, 209, 210 ; captures 
and sacks Rome, 210. 

Albert the Great, 300. 

Albert, Prince of England, 513, 564. 

Albigen'ses, sect of ; war against, 
294. 

Alcibi'ades, Athenian leader, 90. 

Al'cuin, 248. 

Alexander the Great, 23 ; decides 
battle of Chaeronea, 101 ; k. of 
Macedon, his character ; becomes 
leader of Greece ; his army, 101 ; 
destroys Thebes ; Eastern cam- 
paign ; gains battle of Granicus, 
102 ; captures Tyre, conquering 
Phoenicia and Syria, 47, 102 ; 
possesses Egypt, founds Alexan- 
dria, 33, 102 ; gains battles of 
Issus and Arbela, 102 ; invades 
India, 23, 103 ; quells mutiny, 
returns to Susa, 103 ; death and 
influence, 104. 

Alexander, emp. of Russia, 507. 

Alexander Severus, Roman emp., 
190. 

Alexandria, founded by Alexander 
the Great, 102, 105 ; captured by 
the Saracens and library burned, 
228 ; center of learning ; its li- 
brary, museum, 107, 109. 



Alfonso I., k. of Portugal, 332, 

Alfonso Y., k. of Aragon, 328. 

Alfred the Great, 246. 

Al'lia, battle of, 127. 

Alliance, Grand, 432. 

Alman'zor, Moorish vizier, 281. 

Alphabet introduced into Greece by 
the Phoenicians, 46, 62. 

Alps, crossed by Hannibal, 137. 

Alsace (al'-sits'), ceded to Germany, 
525. 

Alva, Duke of, 392. 

Amazon, the, first traversed, 371. 

Amboise (ox'-bwaz'), conspiracy of, 
394. 

Amendments to the American Con- 
stitution, 556, 557. 

America, discovered by the North- 
men, 246 ; by Columbus, 367-369; 
colonization in, 417-421. 

Ames, Fisher, 497. 

Amiens (ii'myax'), peace of, 481. 

Amphic'tyony, Delphic, 68. 

Anab'asis, Xenophon's, 95. 

Ancus Marcius, 119. 

Anderson, Major, 551. 

Andr^ (an-dra'), Major, 458. 

Andros, Sir Edmund, 452. 

Anglo-Saxons, 216. 

Anne, Queen of England, 431, 434, 
436. 

Anselm, 300. 

Antie'tam, battle of, 553. 

Anti-Federalists, 496. 

An'tioch, captured, 272. 

Anti'ochus III., k. of Syria, 141. 

Anti-Slavery, agitation in United 
States, led by William Lloyd Gar- 
rison and Wendell Phillips, 548 ; 
Free Soil party formed, 549. 

Antoni'nus Pius, Roman emp., 186. 

Anto'nius, Marcus, 162 ; address 
at Caesar's funeral, 164 ; enters 
second triumvirate ; with Octavi- 
anus gains battle of Philippi, 165 ; 



INDEX 



569 



defeated at Actium ; flees and 

slays himself, 166. 
Apel'les, Athenian painter, 88. 
Aph'rodi'te, 65. 
Apol'lo, 65. 

Apollodo'rus, Athenian painter, 88. 
Appomattox Court House, surrender 

of Lee at, 556. 
A'quae Sex'tiae, battle of, 149. 
Aquinas, Thomas, 300. 
Ar'abic conquests, 227 ; Palestine, 

Syria, Persia, Egypt, Africa, 228 ; 

Spain ; defeat near Poitiers, 229 ; 

western Mediterranean, Corsica, 

Sardinia, Sicily, 231, 247. 
Aragon, 331. 
Arbe'la, battle of, 103. 
Arca'dius, Eastern lloman Empire, 

209. 
Ar'-eliime'des, 109. 
Architecture, Egyptian, 26 ; Assyrian, 

42 ; Babylonian, 45 ; Greek orders, 

85-87 ; Roman, 180 ; Gothic style, 

303 ; modern, 564. 
Ar'chons, the, 73. 
Ar'eop'agus, court of the, 73, 82. 
Arginu sae, battle of, 91. 
Ar'gonau'tic expedition, 65. 
Ariosto, Italian poet, 372. 
Aristi'des the Just, 78. 
Ar'istogei'ton, 74. 
Aristoph'anes, Athenian comic poet, 

85. 
Ar'istotle, Athenian philosopher, 93, 

300, 421. 
A'rius, 194. 

Arkansas (ar'kan-sa), secedes, 551. 
Arkwright, English inventor, 462. 
Arma'da, Spanish, 408. 
Arnold of Winkelried, 326. 
Arnold, Benedict, 456 ; treason de- 
tected, 458. 
Art, renaissance of, 372. 
Arthur, Prince, Duke of Brittany, 

292. 



Arthur, Chester A., Vice President, 
becomes President, 558. 

Aryans, first abode ; dispersion over 
Europe and Asia, 4, 5 ; languages, 
7 ; early religion, 21 ; on the 
Ganges, 22, 112. 

Ascalon, battle of, 273. 

Assignats (as'se'iia'), Erench, 466. 

As'surban'ipal, 42. 

Assyria, geography, 37 ; early his- 
tory, 40 ; summit of power, 42 ; 
fall, 42, 43. 

Assyrians, customs and religion, 43. 

Astar'te, 44, 47, 65. 

Asty'ages, 55. 

Athana'sius, 194. 

Athens, government in, Draco, 
Solon, 73 ; parties in, tyrants, 
Pisistratids, democracy, reforms 
of Cleisthenes, 74 ; ascendency 
of, 80 ; opposition of Sparta, 
confederacy of Delos, 80 ; defeat 
at Tanagra, 81 ; at Coronea, peace 
of Pericles, growth in time of 
Pericles, 82 ; religion, 84 ; drama, 
art, 85 ; Peloponnesian War, 89 ; 
plague, death of Pericles, truce 
with Sparta, Sicilian expedition, 
90 ; naval contests, 91 ; fall of 
Athens, the Thirty Tyrants, phi- 
losophy, 92 ; historical writings, 
93. 

At'tila, Hunnic general, 211 ; de- 
feated at Chalons ; invades Italy, 
212. 

Auerstadt (ow'er-stat), battle of, 
487. 

Augsburg (owGs'boora), Diet of, 
380, 387. 

Augustine, 194, 300. 

Augustus (see Octavius), made Im- 
perator ; patron of literature, 167 ; 
death, 172 ; 177. 

Aure'lian, Roman emp., 191. 

Aure'lius, Marcus, Roman emp., 



570 



INDEX 



186 ; philosopher ; persecution of 
Christians, 187. 

Austen, Jane, English writer, 503. 

Austerlitz, hattle of, 486. 

Australia, English colony, 540. 

Austrasia, 215, 216. 

Austrian Succession, War of, 438, 
444, 445. 

Austro- Hungarian Empire, reorgan- 
ized, 523. 

Austro- Prussian War, see Schleswig- 
Holstein. 

B 

Babylon, conquests, 44 ; greatness, 

fall, 45. 
Babylonia, geography, early inhabi- 
tants, 37 ; legendary period, early 

civilization, 39. 
Babylonian Captivity (or Exile) in 

Italy, 308, 327, 340. 
Ba-e'^hus, 65. 

Bach (bak), German composer, 373. 
Bacon, Lord Francis, 410, 421, 422. 
Bagdad, greatness of, 229 ; taken 

and plundered by Tartars ; taken 

from them by Tamerlane, 283. 
Baker, African explorer, 561. 
Balboa, discovers the Pacific Ocean, 

369. 
Baldwin, leader in First Crusade, 

272. 
Baldwin, Count of Flanders, leader 

in Fourth Crusade, becomes head 

of Latin empire, 278. 
Balzac (bal'zak'), 563. 
Bancroft, George, 562. 
Banks, N. P., General, 553. 
Bannockburn, battle of, 311. 
Barbarossa, see Frederick I. 
Barbary States, 500, 502. 
Ba'sil, the Great, 223. 
Bastile (bas-tel'), destruction of, 

466. 
Bazaine, French general, 524. 



Beauregard (bo'reh-gard). General,, 
552. 

Beccaria (bek-kii-ree'-a), Italian 
writer, 461. 

Becket, Thomas a. Archbishop of 
Canterbury ; opposes Henry II. ; 
killed, 291. 

Bede, 248. 

Beethoven (ba'to-ven), German 
composer, 503. 

Belgium, change of government, 
511. 

Belisa'rius, general of the Eastern 
Empire, 220. 

Benedictine monks, 239. 

Beneventum, battle of, 132. 

Bennington, battle of, 457. 

Ber'engar I., k. of Italy, 244; II., 
put down by Otto I. , flees to Ger- 
many, 244, 259. 

Berenger (bii'rox-zha), 563. 

Berkeley, Bishop, English philoso- 
pher, 461. 

Berlin Conference, 531. 

Bill of Rights, 432. 

Bismarck, 521, 523, 525. 

Black Death, the, 312. 

Black Hole of Calcutta, 446. 

Blaine, James G., 558. 

Blenheim (blen'im), battle of, 435. 

Bloody Assizes, 430. 

Blucher (blii'Ker), Prussian gen- 
eral, 491, 493.^ 

Boadice'a, Briton queen, 181. 

Boccaccio (bok-kat'cho), 330. 

Boe'thius, 213. ^ 

Boileau (bwa'lo'), French writer, 
460. 

Bolinbroke, Henry of, 316, 317. 
See Henry IV. of England. 

Bonaparte, Napoleon, early history, 
475, 479 ; in Italy ; coup d'etat ; 
in Egypt, 480 ; second coup d'etat ; 
made First Consul ; Marengo ; 
Northern Alliance ; Peace of Ami- 



INDEX 



571 



ens, 481 ; reforms, 482 ; war with 
England, 483 ; made emp. ; third 
coalition against France, 485 ; 
Austerlitz ; Confederation of the 
Rhine, 486 ; invasion of Spain, 
487 ; reaction, 489 ; Russian cam- 
paign, 490 ; German war of liber- 
ation ; Leipsic ; his fall ; Elba, 
491 ; Louis XVIII. ; the Charter ; 
Congress of Vienna, 492, 494 ; 
his return ; Waterloo, 492 ; abdi- 
cation ; St. Helena, 493 ; char- 
acter, 494 ; 498, 513. Napoleon III., 
Louis, 505, 513 ; chosen first 
President of the Republic, 514 ; 
coup d'etat ; empire restored, 517 ; 
519, 523 ; surrenders to William 
of Germany, 524, 536, 552, 559. 

Bonapartes, home of the, 478. 

Bonaventu'ra, St., 300. 

Bonheur (bo'nur'), Rosa, 664. 

Bon'iface, Saxon missionary to Ger- 
many and martyr, 239. 

Boniface VIIL, Pope, 307, 327. 

Booth, Wilkes, assassinates Presi- 
dent Lincoln, 556. 

Borodino (bor'o-de-no), battle of, 
490. 

Bossuet (bos'swa') , French preacher 
and historian, 460. 

Boston Massacre, 454. 

Boston, siege of, 456. 

Bourbon kings, 399, 

Boyne, battle of, 43 L 

Braddock, General, 450. 

Brah'ma, 22. 

Brah'manism, 22. 

Brandy wine, battle of, 457. 

Bras'idas, 90. 

Brennus, 127. 

Bretigny (bre-ten-ee'), treaty of, 
314. 

Bright, John, 513. 

Britain, Saxon conquest of, 216. 

Bronze Age, 10. 



Brown, John, 550. 

Browning, Robert, 563. 

Bruce, Robert, 310. 

Brunelleschi ( broo - nel - les'kee ) , 

Italian architect, 372. 
Brutus, Junius, 164, 165. 
Bryant, William Cullen, 563. 
Buchanan, James, President, 550. 
Buckingham, 411. 
Buddha (bood'da), 22. 
Buddhism, 17, 22. 
Buell, General, 552. 
Buena Vista, battle of, 548. 
Bulgaria, revolt in, 530; result, 

531. 
Bull Run, see 3£anassas. 
Bunker Hill, battle of, 456. 
Bunyan, John, 428, 461. 
Burgher Class, rise of, 297-300. 
Burgoyne', surrender of, 457. 
Burgun'dians, 209, 211, 212, 215. 
Burgundy, 216. 
Burke, Edmund, 446, 473. 
Burns, Robert, Scotch poet, 502. 
Burnside, General, 553, 555. 
Burr, Aaron, 499, 500. 
Butler, Bishop, English philosopher, 

462. 
Byron, Lord, English peer, 502, 509. 



Cabal, the, 429. 

Cabanel, 564. 

Cable, George W., 562. 

Cabot, John, Venetian explorer, 
369. 

Cabot, Sebastian, 369. 

Cadiz, 46. 

Caesar, Caius Julius, 158 ; enters 
first triumvirate ; subjugates Gaul ; 
his Commentaries, 159, 168 ; rup- 
ture with Pompey, 161 ; estab- 
lishes his power in Italy ; defeats 
Pompey at Pharsalus, 162 ; victo- 



572 



INDEX 



ries ill Egypt, at Zela, Thapsus, 
Munda, 163; assassinated, 164. 

Calais (cal'is), captured by tlie 
English, 312. 

Calhoun, John C, 547, 548. 

California, Upper, surrendered to 
United States, 549. 

Calig'ula, Roman emp., 177. 

Calvin, John, theologian ; in Geneva, 
389. 

Camby'ses, conquest of Egypt, 32, 
56. 

Cam'oens, Portuguese writer, 422. 

Campbell, English poet, 503. 

Canada, conquest of, 451, 452 ; two 
provinces ; Dominion of, 537. 

Can'nae, battle of, 138. 

Canning, 508. 

Cano'va, Italian sculptor, 503. 

Canute (Cnut), k. of England, Den- 
mark, Norway, and part of Swe- 
den, 247. 

Capet, see Hugh Capet. 

Captivity, Babylonian, of Jews, 52. 

Cap'ua, 138. 

Caracal'la, Roman emp., 190. 

Car'^hemisli, captured by Sargon, 
41 ; trade, 42. 

Carlowitz, peace of, 428. 

Carlyle, Thomas, 562. 

Carnot (car'no'), French statesman, 
475, 480. 

Carnot, French President, assassi- 
nated, 532. 

Carolingians, supplant the Merovin- 
gians, 216 ; House of the, 233 ; 
Pipin tlie Sliort crowned by the 
Pope, 234 ; Charlemagne, 236- 
238 ; end of empire, 242. 

Carthage, government, naval power, 
47 ; declares (first Punic) war 
with Rome, 134 ; forced to con- 
clude peace, 135 ; dominion in 
Spain ; second Punic war, 136 ; 
recalls Hannibal ; peace with 



Rome, 139 ; third Punic war ; de- 
stroyed, 144. 

Carus, Roman emp. , 191. 

Cassius, 164, 165. 

Castile, 331, 332. 

Catharine de' Medici (med'e-chee), 
393, 394. 

Catherine II., Empress of Russia, 
447. 

Catholic Emancipation Bill in Eng- 
land, 512. 

Cat'iline, conspiracy of, 158. 

Cato the Stoic, 189. 

Cato, Marcus Portius, Censor, 144. 

Catul'lus, Roman poet, 168. 

Cavaliers, or Royalists, in English 
Civil War, 413. 

Cavour (ka'voor'), 518, 519, 523. 

Cawnpore, 533. 

Celsus, 194. 

Ce'res, 65. 

Cervan'tes, Spanish writer, 422. 

Chaerone'a^ battle" of, 152. 

Chalons (sha-loN'), battle of, 212. 

Champlain, founds Quebec, 417. 

Chancellorsville, battle of, 553. 

Chantrey, sculptor, 563. 

Charlemagne (shar'le-man ), con- 
quers the Saxon Witikind, the 
Ilunnic Avars, Brittany ; awes 
the Slavonic tribes, 236 ; crowned 
and saluted as Roman Emperor 
by Pope Leo III. ; system of gov- 
ernment, 237 ; personal traits ; 
extent of empire ; condition of 
the people, 238. 

Charles the Bald, 241, 242. 

Charles the Bold, treaty with Louis 
XI. of France ; war against the 
Swiss ; defeated and slain, 350, 351. 

Charles the Fat, 242. 

Charles Martel', 216, 229, 234. 

Charles I., k. of England, 411 ; the 
Long Parliament, 412 ; civil war ; 
Cromwell, 413; Marston Moor, 



INDEX 



573 



Naseby, 414 ; trial and execution, 
415. II., 416, 426 ; restored ; char- 
acter, conduct, 428-430. 

Charles II., k. of Spain, 434. 

Charles IV., emp. of Germany, 324. 
v., election, possessions, 377 ; wars 
with Francis I., 378, 379. 

Charles V. the Wise, k. of France, 
315. VL, 317 ; struggle between 
the Burgundians and Armagnacs, 
317, 318 ; loses his reason ; Agin- 
court, 318. VII,, Joan of Arc, 
319 ; siege of Orleans ; English 
driven out of France, 320. VIII., 
352, 363 ; IX., civil war, 394. X., 
510, 511. 

Charles XII., of Sweden, 439. 

Charter governments, 452. 

Chartist movement, in England, 512. 

Chateaubriand ( sha ' to ' bri - on ' ) , 
French writer, 502. 

Chattanooga, battles at, 554. 

Chaucer, English poet, 317. 

China, language, literature, 18 ; 
religion, government, arts, 19 ; 
T'ang dynasty, 342 ; Sung and 
Ming dynasties, 343 ; throne 
seized by Manchu Tartars, 422 ; 
see Opium War ; five ports made 
free to British, trade, Hong Kong 
ceded to England ; treaty with 
United States ; war with Great 
Britain and France, Chinese de- 
feated, 559; Taiping rebellion sup- 
pressed ; war with Japan, Chinese 
defeated, 560. 

Christ, birth, crucifixion, 170, 171. 

Christianity, introduction of, 169 ; 
extension by Apostles, 171 ; placed 
under the ban, 184 ; extermination 
attempted by Diocletian, 191 ; num- 
ber of persecutions ; predominates 
over heathenism in the empire, 193; 
abolished in French Kevolution, 
476 ; restored by Napoleon, 482. 



Christians, persecuted by Nero, 179 ; 
by Marcus Aurelius, 187. 

Chrys'ostom, John, 223. 

Church, American painter, 564. 

Church, Christian, development of, 
193. 

Cicero, Marcus Tullius, aids Pom- 
pey, 155 ; defeats Catiline's con- 
spiracy, 158 ; exiled, 159 ; recalled, 
160 ; 162, 164 ; his Philippics ; put 
to death, 165. 

Cid, the, see Spain; poem of the, 
302. 

Cimabue (che-ma-boo'), Italian 
painter, 302. 

Cimbri, defeated, 149. 

Cinion, victory of, at the Eurymedon, 
79; 81. 

Cincinna'tus, 126. 

Citizenship, Roman, 132. 

Clarendon, Constitutions of, 291. 

Claudian imperial house, 176. 

Claudius, Roman emp., 178, 191. 

Clay, Henry, 546, 548, 549. 

Clay's Compromise, 549. 

Cleisthenes, reforms of, 74. 

Clement V. , Pope, 308. 

Clement VIL, Pope, 379. 

Cleon, 90. 

Cleopatra, 163, 166. 

Cleveland, Grover, twice elected 
President, 558. 

Clive, 446. 

Clovis, k, of the Franks, accepts 
Christianity, 214. 

Cobden, Richard, 513. 

Code of Napoleon, 482. 

Codrus, last k. of Athens, 73. 

Coleridge, English poet, 503. 

Coligni (ko'le'-iiee'), Admiral, 393, 
394 ; killed, 395. 

Colonies, the thirteen, 448 ; condi- 
tion, 452 ; disaffection, 453 ; see 
Bevolutio7i. 

Colonies, Greek, 76. 



574 



INDEX 



Colonies, Roman, 133. 

Colosse'um, 180, 182. 

Columbian Exliibition, 558. 

Columbus, Christopher, discovers the 
New World, 367-369. 

Comitia (ko-mish'i-a) curia'ta, 122, 
tribu'ta, 125. 

Com'modus, Roman emp., 190. 

Commons, House of, origin, 251, 296. 

Commonwealth, in England, 415 ; 
war with Holland, 416 ; see Oliver 
Cromwell. 

Communists, in France, 525, 526. 

Concord, battle of, 455. 

Concordat, the, of Bonaparte, 482. 

Concordat of Worms, decision as to 
investitures, 265. 

Cond^ (kox'de'), Loiiis, Prince of, 
394, 395. 

Confederate States of America, see 
Secession, Ordinance of. 

Confederation, Articles of, 456. 

Confucius, 17. 

Congress, First Continental, 454 ; 
Second Continental, 455 ; first, 
under new government, 459. 

Congress, Provincial, 454. 

Connecticut, settlement of, 419. 

Co'non, 91, 92, 95. 

Conrad of Franconia, begins the 
struggle of royal suzerains against 
feudal lords, 243. 

Conrad II., emp., 261. III., 274 ; a 
leader in Second Crusade, 275. 

Constance, treaty of, 275. 

Con'stantine, Roman emp., 191 ; 
reorganizes the empire, removing 
capital to Byzantium, 192 ; em- 
braces Christianity, 193 ; imperial 
house of, 197. 

Constantinople (Byzantium), be- 
comes capital of Roman Empire, 
192 ; pillaged by crusaders, 278 ; 
captured by Turks, 339. 

Constan'tius, Roman emp., 195. 



Constitution, American, formed, 
459. 

Cooper, James Fenimore, 562. 

Copernicus, astronomer, 421. 

Copley, American painter, 503. 

Cordeliers (kor'de-ler'), the, 467 

Cor'dova, caliphate of, 231, 281. 

Corinth, destroyed, 144. 

Corneille (cor'nay'), French writer 
of tragedy, 460. 

Cornwallis, surrender of, 458. 

Corone'a, battles at, 82, 95. 

Corot (ko-ro'), 564. 

Correggio (cor-ed'jo), Italian 
painter, 373. 

Cortereal, Portuguese explorer, 369. 

Cortes, Hernando, conqueror of 
Mexico, 370. 

Council of Clermont, 269. 

Coup d'Etat (koo-da-ta'), of Bona- 
parte, 480, 481 ; of Louis Napo- 
leon, 517. 

Courts of law, origin, 251. 

Cowper, William, English poet, 502. 

Cranmer, Thomas, 403, 404. 

Crassus, Marcus, defeat of gladi- 
ators, 154 ; enters first triumvirate, 
159. 

Crawford, sculptor, 563. 

Crawford, F. Marion, 562. 

Cr6cy (cres'si), battle of, 312. 

Crimean War, England and France 
against Russia, battles of Alma, 
Balaklava, Inkermann, siege and 
capture of Sebastopol, Peace of 
Paris, 518. 

Crit'ias, 92. 

Croe'sus, k. of Lydia, 55. 

Cromwell, Oliver, character, army, 
414 ; establishes the Common- 
wealth, 415 ; made Lord Protector, 
416. 

Cromwell, Richard, resigns Pro- 
tectorate, 428. 

Crown Point, 450, 451. 



INDEX 



575 



Crusades, causes, 250, 266, 267 ; call 
of Greeks ; motives, 268. First, 
capture of Nicaea, Aiitioch, defeat 
of Turks, 272 ; Jerusalem cap- 
tured, Egyptians defeated at As- 
calon, 273. Second, preached by 
St. Bernard, 274 ; led by Louis 
VII. of France, and Conrad III. ; 
siege of Damascus fails ; Saladin, 
defeated near Ascalon, but victor 
at Tiberias, enters Jerusalem, 
275. Third, under Frederick 
Barbarossa, Philip Augustus of 
France, and Richard the Lion- 
Hearted, of England ; march 
through Asia Minor, Frederick 
drowned in Cilicia ; Acre taken ; 
Philip returns to France ; Saladin 
grants a strip of coast, and allows 
pilgrimages, 276. Fourth, under 
French barons, Baldwin and 
Boniface, 277 ; Constantinople 
pillaged, Latin empire established, 
278. Children's, nearly all perish, 

278. Fifth, under Frederick II., 
Jerusalem taken, Nazareth and a 
strip of coast ceded by the Sultan, 

279. Sixth and Seventh, under 
Louis IX. of France; Damietta 
taken ; Louis and army captured, 
ransomed ; perish from sickness, 
283 ; Acre recovered by Egyp- 
tians ; results of Crusades, 283, 
284. 

Cullo'den, battle of, 438. 
Cunax'a, battle of, 95. 
Cyax'ares, 43, 55. 
Cy'lon, 73. 
Cyn'ics, the, 93. 
Cyn'oceph'alae, battle of, 141. 
Cyp'rian, Christian bishop and 

martyr, 193. 
Cyrus, k. of Persia, 52 ; conquests, 

55. 
Cyrus the younger, 95. 



D 

Damascus, siege of, 275 ; captured 
by Tartars, 283. 

Danes, in England, 246. 

Dante, Italian poet, 302, 326, 329. 

Danton (doN'toN'), 467, 471, 474. 

Darius I., k. of Persia, conquests, 
56 ; war with lonians, expedition 
against Greece, 77. II., 95. 

Darnley, husband of Mary, Queen 
of Scots, 407, 410. 

Daubigny (do-ben'ye), 564. 

David, k. of Hebrews, 50. 

David, French painter, 503. 

Da Vinci (da vin'chee), Leonardo, 
Italian painter, 373. 

Davis, Jefferson, 551. 

Decatur, 500, 501. 

Decem'virs, 126. 

De'cius, Poman emp,, 191. 

Declaration of Right, 431. 

Defoe', English writer, 462. 

Delacroix (deh-la'krwa), 564. 

Delaroche (d'la'r^sh'), 503, 564. 

Delaware, 449. 

De'lium, battle of, 90. 

Delos, Confederacy of, 80. 

Deme'ter, 65. 

Democratic party, 547, 558. 

Demos'thenes, general, 90, 91. 

Demos'thenes, Athenian statesman 
and orator, opposes Philip of 
Macedon, 100 ; death, 108. 

Denmark, Reformation in, 382. 

Descartes (da-karf), French philos- 
opher, 421. 

De Soto, discovers the Mississippi 
River, 417. 

Diaz, Bartholomew, Portuguese dis- 
coverer, 366. 

Dickens, Charles, 562. 

Diocle'tian, Roman emp., 191. 

Diog'enes, philosopher, 93. 

Di'ony'sus, 65. 



576 



IXDEX 



Disraeli (dis-ra'lee), 513, 531, 536. 

Domesday Book, 250. 

Domin'icans, 300. 

Domitian, Roman emp., 183. 

Dom Pedro, 508. II., dethroned, 
559. 

Dorians, the, 62 ; migrations, 63, 64. 

Dorylae'um, battle of, 272. 

Douglas, Stephen A., 550. 

Dra'co, 73, 

Drake, Sir Francis, English navi- 
gator, 408. 

Drama, Greek, 85. 

Dred Scott case, 550. 

Dru'sus, Marcus Livius, 150. 

Drydeu, English poet, 461. 

Dudevant (diid'voN'), Madame, 563. 

Du Guesclin (du-ga-klax'), 315. 

Dumas (dli'ma'), 563. 

Du Quesne (dlikan'), Fort, 450, 451. 

Dtirer, Albert, German painter, 373. 

Dutch Republic, 392. 

E 

Early, General, 555. 

East India Company, 446, 512, 536, 

Edgeworth, Miss, English writer, 
503. 

Edison, 561. 

Edmund Ironside, 247. 

Edward tlie Confessor, k, of Eng- 
land, 247, 248, 

Edward I,, k. of England ; de- 
scendants of, 305 ; conqueror of 
Wales ; contest with Scotland ; 
expels the Jews, 310. II., de- 
throned, 311. III., 310 ; at war 
with France, Cr^cy, Calais, Brit- 
tany, Poitiers, 311-315. English 
language comes into general use, 
317. IV., 352. VI., 403. 

Edward the Black Prince, 312-315. 

Edwards, Jonathan, Kew England 
theologian, 463. 



Egbert, founder of the Heptarchy, 
217. 

Egmont, Count, 391, 392. 

Egypt, inhabitants, the Nile, 24 ; 
geographical divisions, 24, 25 ; 
early civilization, sources of his- 
tory, 26 ; writing, hieroglyphics, 
eras in history, old empire, pyra- 
mids, 27 ; Thebes, dominion of, 

28 ; Hyksos, the, martial spirit, 
Thothmes III., Ramses I., Seti I., 

29 ; Lybian incursions, Ramses II., 
war with Hittites, 31 ; Hebrews, 
exodus of, Assyrian conquest, 
Persian conquest, 32 ; rulers and 
classes, 33 ; religion, 34 ; dead, 
bodies of the, 35. Modern E,, 
financial embarrassment ; French 
and English intervention, 536 ; 
English bombard Alexandria, 537, 

Elba, island of, 492. 

Electoral Commission, 558. 

El-eu-sin'i-an Mysteries, 71. 

Eliot, Sir John, 411. 

Eliot, John, apostle to the Indians, 
420. 

Elizabeth, Queen of England, 403 ; 
character, 405 ; religious position, 
406, 

Emancipation, Proclamation of, 553. 

Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 562. 

Emperors, Roman, 177-196, 

Endicott, John, 419, 

d'Enghien (dox'gax'), Duke, 485. 

England, Caesar in Britain, 160 ; 
Saxon conquest of B., 216; con- 
version of the Saxons, Augustine 
and other missionaries, 217 ; 
Danes in E., Alfred, 246 ; Canute, 
Edward, 247 ; Xorman Conquest, 
William the Conqueror, 248-252 ; 
E. and France, 288-320, see Tahle 
of Contents; wars of the Roses, 
352-355 ; Reformation, Henry 
VIII., 382 ; separation of E. from 



INDEX 



57T 



Rome, 384 ; Reformation, second 
stage, 403-409; James I., 410; 
Charles I., 411 ; Revolution, Crom- 
well, 413 ; the Commonwealth, 
415, 416 ; colonization in America, 
417-420 ; Restoration of Stuarts, 
428 ; Revolution of 1688, William 
and Mary, 431 ; Peace of Ryswick, 
433 ; War of Spanish Succession, 
434-436 ; house of Hanover, 437 ; 
War of Austrian Succession, 438, 
444 ; Seven Years' War, 445 ; 
British Indian Empire, 446 ; con- 
test of E. and France in America, 
war of American Independence, 
448-459 ; literature and science, 
461, 462 ; politics, 473 ; Napoleon's 
plan to invade E., 484; Nelson, 
486 ; Waterloo, 493 ; Napoleon 
placed in St. Helena, Congress 
of Vienna, 494 ; reform, slavery 
abolished, the Opium War, 512 ; 
repeal of the Corn Laws, 513 ; 
Crimean War, 518 ; E. preserves 
the Turkish Empire, 530 ; secret 
treaty, 531 ; Indian Mutiny, 533 ; 
Afghanistan, Egypt, 536 ; the 
Colonies, 537 ; Ireland, 540-542 ; 
science, art, literature, and mis- 
sions, 561-565. 

English language, formation of, 250. 

Ennius, Roman poet, 145. 

E-pam'i-non'das, Theban general, 
96, 97, 98. 

Ephors in Sparta, 72. 

Epicte'tus the Stoic, 189. 

Eras'mus, Desiderius, 372. 

E'sarhad'don II. , 42. 

Essex, Earl of, 408. 

Euclid, 109. 

Eudox'ia, 212. 

Eugene, Prince of Savoy, 435, 436. 

Eurip'ides, Greek tragic poet, 85. 

Eurybi'ades, 79. 

Eurym'edon, battle at the, 79. 

GEN. HIST. — 37 



Euse'bius, Church historian, 223. 
Eustace, a leader in First Crusade, 

272. 
Evangeline, Longfellow's, see Aca- 
dians. 



Fabius Maximus, 130. 

Fabius Maximus, the Delayer, 138. 

Fair Oaks, battle of, 553. 

Families of languages, 37. 

Farragut, Admiral, 552, 555. 

Federalist, The, 463. 

Federalists, the, 496, 498 ; extinction 
of the party, 543. 

Fehr'bellin, battle of, 426. 

F^nelon (fa'neh-loN'), French writer, 
460. 

Fenian movement, 542. 

Ferdinand of Aragon, marries Isa- 
bella of Castile; persecutes the 
Moors, 355, 364. 

Ferdinand I., k. of Germany; II., 
Bohemian revolt, 397. III., 401. 

Ferdinand VII., of Denmark, 520, 
521. 

Ferdinand VII., of Spain, 507. 

Feudalism, origin of, 254 ; ecclesi- 
astical, 255 ; spread of, 245, 250, 
256. 

Fielding, English writer, 462. 

Fillmore, Millard, becomes Presi- 
dent, 549. 

Fire, the Great, in London, 428. 

Five Forks, battle of, 555. 

Flamin'ius, Roman consul, 137. 

Flaxman, English sculptor, 503. 

Florida, purchase of, 543 ; secession 
of, 551. 

Fontenailles (foNt'na'e), battle of, 
241. 

Foote, A. H., Commodore, 552. 

Fort Donelson captured, 552. 

Fort Sluys (slois), battle of, 311. 

Fort Henry captured, 552, 



578 



INDEX 



Fra Angelico, Italian painter, 373. 

France, see Franks and Caro- 
lingians. Kingdom founded by 
Hugh Capet, 242 ; first rivalsliip 
with England, 288 ; beginning of 
monarchical period, 292 ; second 
period of rivalship with England, 
Hundred Years' War, 306-320; 
results, 349 ; invasions of Italy, 
363 ; civil wars, 393-396 ; Thirty 
Years' War, 397-401 ; prepon- 
derance under Louis XIV., 425- 
427 ; decline, 436 ; contest with 
England in America, 448-458 ; 
see Bonaparte; Crimean War, 
518 ; Franco-Prussian War, 524 ; 
interference in Mexico, 559. 

Francis'cans, 300. 

Francis I. of Austria, 507. 

Francis I, of France ; war with 
Cliarles V. ; captured at Pavia, 
378 ; second war with Charles V., 
379; 393. II., 393. 

Franconian imperial house, 257. 

Franco-Prussian War, cause, pre- 
text, 523 ; battles of Weissenburg, 
Worth, Saarbrilcken, Gravelotte, 
Sedan, 524 ; surrender of Metz, 
Paris, cession of Alsace and Lor- 
raine, indemnity, 525. 

Frankfort Assembly, 515, 516. 

Franklin, Arctic explorer, 561. 

Franklin, Benjamin, 452, 453, 456, 
463, 562. 

Franks, the, 205, 212, 214 ; divisions 
in kingdom of, 215, 216 ; princes, 
see CaroUngians ; use of the term 
"F." since First Crusade, 272. 

Frederick of Austria, 324. 

Frederick I., Barbarossa, emp. of 
Germany ; crosses the Alps to 
subdue Italy ; fails ; reconciliation 
with Pope ; treaty of Constance, 
275 ; undertakes Third Crusade 
with kings of France and England ; 



death, 276. 11. , leads Fifth Cru- 
sade, takes Jerusalem, 279 ; victory 
over Guelphs ; excommunicated 
by Popes and declared deposed, 
but maintains supremacy, 280. 
III., 357. 

Frederick L, k. of Prussia, 442-444. 
II., the Great, 442-445. HI., 533. 

Frederick William, Great Elector of 
Prussia, 442. 

Frederick William L, k. of Prussia, 
442. IL, 469, 470. IIL, 486, 507. 
IV., 521. 

Fredericksburg, battle at, 553. 

Freeman, 562. 

Free-Soil party, see Anti-Slavery. 

Fremont, General, 553. 

French colonies and foreign posses- 
sions, 449, 532. 

French and Indian War, 450. 

French Revolution, 464-479. 

Frere, Sir Bartle, 565. 

Friedland, battle of, 487. 

Frobisher, English navigator, 408. 

Fulton, Robert, 497, 561. 



G 

Gage, General, 454, 456. 

Gainesborough, 503. 

Gaisei'ic, Vandal general, 211- ; sacks 

Rome, 212. 
Galba, Roman emp., 181. 
Galeazzo, Visconti, 328. 
Galile'o, astronomer, 421. 
Gallican Church, 427. 
Gallie'nus, Roman emp., 191. 
Gambetta, 525, 532. 
Games, Greek, 70. 
Garfield, James A., General, elected 

President, assassinated, 558. 
Garibaldi, Italian patriot, 517, 519. 
Garrison, William Lloyd, 548. 
Gautier, Th^ophile (go'te-a', ta'o- 

feel'), 'om. 



INDEX 



579 



Geneva Award, the, 552. 
Geneva, Calvinism in, 389. 
Genghis Klian (jen'gis kan) leads 

Mongolian invasion, 282, 343. 
George Eliot, see Mrs. Lewes. 
George Sand, see 3Iadame Dude- 

vant. 
George I., k. of England, 437. II., 

438,444. III., 458, 473. IV., 508. 
Georgia, settled, 448 ; secession of, 

551. 
Germans, victory over Romans, 172. 
Germany, conversion of, 239 ; birth 

of the nation, 241, 242 ; two great 

contending parties, 243 ; German 

Imperial Constitution, 525. 
G^rome (zha'rom'), 564. 
Gerry, 498. 

Gettysburg, battle of, 554. 
Ghent, 298 ; pacification of, 392 ; 

treaty of, 501. 
Ghiberti, Italian artist, 372. 
Gibbon, English historian, 462. 
Gibraltar, ceded to England, 436. 
Gibson, 563. 
Gifford, 564. 
Giotto (jot'to), Italian painter, 302, 

372. 
Girondists, 469, 470, 474, 476. 
Gladiators, war with, 154. 
Gladstone, 540, 542. 
Godfrey of Bouillon (boo'-yoN'), a 

leader in the First Crusade, 272 ; 

ruler of Jerusalem, victor at Asca- 

lon, 273. 
Godwin, 248. 

Goethe, German poet, 503. 
Goldsmith, English writer, 462. 
Gordian, Roman emp., 191. 
Gordon, General, 537, 560. 
Gort'chakof, 531. 
Goths, 196, 205. 
Gower, English poet, 317. 
Gracchus, Ca'ius, 148. 
Gracchus, Tibe'rius, 147. 



Grana'da, kingdom of, 282. 

Grani'cus, battle on the, 102. 

Grant, African explorer, 561. 

Grant, Ulysses S., General, 552; 
takes Yicksburg, Port Hudson, 
victorious at Lookout Mountain, 
Missionary Ridge, 554 ; made lieu- 
tenant-general, gains battle of the 
Wilderness, 555 ; forces the sur- 
render of Lee and the Confederate 
army, 556 ; elected President, 557. 

Gravelotte (grav-lof), battle of, 524. 

Gray, English poet, 462. 

Greece, the land, states, 59 ; history, 
divisions of, 61 ; prehistoric age, 
foreign influences, 62 ; Dorian 
migration, 63 ; migrations to Asia 
Minor, 64 ; character, 64 ; religion, 
65 ; social life in the Homeric age, 
67 ; unions of tribes, 08 ; games, 
literature, 70 ; aristocratic govern- 
ment, 71 ; formation of principal 
states, 71-76 ; see Athens, Sparta ; 
literature, 75 ; colonies, 76 ; Per- 
sian Wars, 77 ; Ionian revolts, 
battle of Marathon, 77 ; Aris- 
tides and Themistocles, war with 
Xerxes, Thermopylae, 78 ; Salamis, 
Plataea, Mycale, Eurymedon, 79 ; 
Athens, 80 ; Peloponnesian War, 
89 ; Retreat of the Ten Thousand, 
Corinthian War, Peace of Antal- 
cidas, 95 ; contest of Thebes and 
Sparta, 96 ; Theban hegemony, 
97 ; subjected by Philip of Mace- 
don, 99 ; revolt ; defeat at Cran- 
non ; Achaean League ; Aetolian 
League, 108 ; philosophy and cul- 
ture, 109. 

Greely, Arctic explorer, 561. 

Greene, General, 455, 458. 

Greenland, discovered, 246. 

Gregory of Xazianzus, 223. 

Gregory of Nyssa, 223. 

Grote, George, 562. 



580 



INDEX 



Guelphs and Ghibellines, see Welfs 
and Waihlings, 274; strife in 
Italy, 326, 327. 

Guicciardini (gweet-char-de^-nee) , 
Italian historian, 372. 

Guido Eeni (gwe^do ra'nee), Ital- 
ian painter, 373. 

Guilds, in Middle Ages, 299. . 

Guise (geez), family of, 393, 395. 

Guizot (gee'zo'), 510, 514. 

Gutenberg, John, first to use mova- 
ble types, 365. 

Gyges (gi'gez), 42. 



H 

Habeas Corpus Act, 429. 
Hadrian, Roman emp., 185. 
Hallam, 562. 

Halleck, Fitz-Greene, 563. 
Hamil'car, Carthaginian general, 135. 
Hamilton, Alexander, 459, 463, 496, 

498, 499, 562. 
Hampden, John, 412, 413. 
Hancock, John, 456. 
Handel, German composer, 373. 
Hanging Gardens of Babylon, 45. 
Hannibal, Carthaginian general, 

136 ; crosses the Alps, 137 ; victor 

at Cannae, 138 ; recalled to Africa ; 

defeated at Zama, 139. 
Hanno, 135. 
Hanover, House of, 437. 
Hanseatic League, 298, 323. 
Hapsburg, House of, 323. 
Harmo'dius, 74. 
Harold, 248. 
Haroun- al- Kaschid (ha-roon'al- 

rash'id). Caliph of Bagdad, 230, 

238. 
Harrison, Benjamin, President, 558. 
Harrison, General, 500, 501. 
Harvard College founded, 419, 452. 
Has'drubal, Carthaginian general, 

135, 136, 139. 



Hastings, battle of, 248. 

Hastings, Warren, impeachment of, 
446. 

Havelock, General, 533. 

Hawkins, English navigator, 408. 

Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 562. 

Hayden, German composer, 503. 

Hayes, Rutherford B., President, 
558. 

Hayne, Robert Y., 548. 

Hebrews, early history, 32, 48 ; 
laws and religion, era of the 
Judges, 49 ; the Monarchy, rise 
and power, 50 ; division of king- 
dom, 51 ; captivity, return from 
Babylon, 52; legal system, litera- 
ture, 53. 

Hegi'ra, the, 226. 

Hei'delberg, founded by Conrad, 
275. 

Helen, wife of Menelaus, QQ. 

Heliogab'alus, Roman emp., 190. 

Hellas, or Greece, 59. 

Helle'nes or Hel'lenes, the, 59. 

Henry, inventor, 561. 

Henry I., k. of England, 289. II., 
son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, 
Count of Anjou ; subdues the 
barons, establishes trial by jury, 
276, 290 , pays penance for death 
of Becket, 291. III., defeats 
Louis VIII. of France ; conflict 
with barons (through him Par- 
liament assumes present form) ; 
defeated at Lewes ; victor at Eves- 
ham ; Great Charter three tim6s 
confirmed, 296. IV., 317. V., in- 
vades France ; battle of A gin- 
court, 318. VI., unsuccessful war 
with France ; Jack Cade's rebel- 
lion, 320; 352,353. VII., Henry 
Tudor, defeats Richard III. ; first 
Tudor king, 353 ; exalts royal 
power, 355; 367. VIII., 363, 364, 
380 : attitude towards the Reform- 



INDEX 



581 



ation, 382 ; Defender of the Faith ; 
divorce question, 383 ; separation 
of England from Rome ; two par- 
ties, 384 ; National Church estab- 
lished, 385, 403. 

Henry I., the Fowler, k, of Ger- 
many ; lays foundations of Ger- 
man empire, 258. II., 260. III., 
favors the "Truce of God"; di- 
rects succession of the Papacy, 
261. IV., contests in Germany, 
262 ; contest with Hildebrand, 
submission, 263 ; reaction, cap- 
tures Rome ; crowned emp. by 
Clement III, ; rebellion of his 
sons, 264. Y. , contest with the 
Pope regarding investitures ; com- 
promise, 264, 265. VI., 276, 277. 
YIL, 324. 

Henry II., k. of France, 393. III., 
395. IV., of Navarre, 394, 395; 
reign of, war with Spain ; Edict 
of Nantes, 396 ; 398. 

Henry the Lion, 274, 276. 

Henry, Patrick, 453. 

Henry, Prince, the Navigator, of 
Portugal, 333. 

Henry the Proud, 274. 

Heptarchy, the English, 217. 

Heracle'a, battle of, 131. 

Her'acles, see Hercules. 

Heracli'dae, return of the, 63. 

Hercula'neum, 183. 

Her'cules, 65. 

Herod, 170. 

Herod'otus, historian, 93. 

He'siod, 65. 

Hezekiah, k. of Judah, 52. 

Hieroglyphics, 27. 

High Commission, Court of the, 412, 
413. 

Hil'debrand, Pope Gregory VIL, 
248 ; reforms, 262 ; investitures ; 
contest with Henry IV. , 263 ; 
victory ; exile , 264. 



Himalaya (him-a'la-ya), 21. 
Hippar'-ehus, son of Pisistratus, 74. 
Hip'pias, son of Pisistratus, 74. 
Hippodrome, the, 219. 
History, design in, landmarks, eras, 

12, 13. 
Hittites, the, 30, 31. 
Hogarth, English painter, 373. 
Hohenstaufen iujperial house, 257, 

274, 326. 
Holbein (hol'bin), Hans, German 

painter, 373. 
Holy Alliance, 507, 508, 509. 
Holy Roman Empire, see Bomano- 

Germanic empire. 
Homer, 67. 

Hong Kong ceded to England, 559. 
Hono'rius, Western Roman emp., 

209, 210, 211. 
Hood, General, 555. 
Hooker, General, 553, 555. 
Horace, Roman poet, 167. 
Horatius Codes, 121. 
Horn, Count, 391, 392. 
Houston, Sam, General, 548. 
Hubertsbarg, Peace of, 445. 
Hugh Capet, 243 ; descendants of, 

286. 
Hugo, Victor, 563. 
Huguenots, the, 393, 395, 417, 427, 

448. 
Hume, English philosopher and his- 
torian, 462. 
Hundred Years' War, between Eng- 
land and France, three periods, 

311-320. 
Hungarians, incursions of, 243 ; 

defeated by Henry the Fowler, 

258; by Otto I., 259. 
Hungary, the Arpad dynasty of, 

336 ; struggle with Austria, 516. 
Huns, 196 ; overcome the Goths, 

208, 209, 211, 212. 
Hunt, 563. 
Huntington, 564. 



582 



INDEX 



Huss, John, 325. 

Hyksos (hik'sos), the, shepherd 
kings of Egypt, 29. 



Iceland, discovered, 246. 

Iconoclastic controversy, 223, 224. 

Ignatius, Christian bishop and 
martyr, 193. 

Iliad, the, m, 70. 

Image Breakers, see Iconoclastic 
controversy. 

Independence, Declaration of, 456 ; 
recognized by France, 457 ; by 
Holland, Sweden, Denmark, Spain, 
Russia, England, 458. 

Independents, see Puritans; 414, 
418. 

India, Mohammedan states, 345 ; 
rule, trade, 423 ; British sway in, 
see East India Company ; Indian 
Empire, British, 446 ; rebellion 
crushed, 533, 534. 

Indians, in North America, 420. 

Indulgence, Declaration of, 430. 

Innocent III., Pope and statesman ; 
a second founder of papal state ; 
favors Fourth Crusade, 277 ; 
excommunicates and deposes 
Otto IV., 278; 292; excommuni- 
cates and deposes John, 203, 
294. 

Inventions, principal modern, 561. 

lonians, the, 62, 64 ; revolt of, from 
Persia, 77. 

Iranians, 54. 

Ireland, south of, subject to Eng- 
land, 291 ; entire island subjected, 
409 ; grievances, English legisla- 
tion, 540, 541 ; Fenian movement ; 
demand for home rule, 542. 

Ire'ne, Empress of the East, 224. 

Irish, conversion of the, 217. 

Iron Age, 10. 



Irving, Washington, 563. 

Isabella, Queen of Castile, 355 ; 
furnishes ships to Columbus, 367. 

Issus, battle of, 102. 

Italy, inhabitants of ancient, 113 ; 
condition in fifteenth century, 
357, 359 ; French invasions, 363 ; 
war of independence, 518, 519 ; 
seat of government moved to 
Rome, 527. 

Iturbide (e-toor-be'da), 508. 

Ivan I., founder of Russian mon- 
archy, 336. III., the Great, 336, 
360. IV., first entitled Czar, 360 ; 
conquers Siberia, 361. 



Jack Cade, rebellion of, 320. 
Jackson, Andrew, General, 501, 

543 ; President, 547 ; proclamation 

against nullification ; hostility to 

National Bank, 548. 
Jackson, "Stonewall," General, 553. 
Jacobins, the, 467, 474, 479, 483. 
Jacobites, 433 ; rebellion crushed, 

437. 
James I., the Conqueror, of Spain, 

331. 
James I., k. of England, 408, 410 ; 

foreign policy, 410, 418. II., 430 ; 

deposed, 431. 
James VI., of Scotland, see James 7., 

of England. 
Jamestown, settled, 418. 
Jane Grey, Lady, 404. 
Jansenists, controversy with Jesuits ; 

proscribed, 427. 
Ja'nus, temple of, closed, 166. 
Japan, changes in government, 343 ; 

civil war, feudalism, 344 ; Jesuit 

missions ; Christianity proscribed, 

massacre, 423 ; treaty with United 

States ; abolition of feudalism ; 

a constitution promulgated ; war 



INDEX 



583 



with China, Japanese victorious, 

605. 
Ja'spn, Q6. 
Jay, Jolm, American statesman, 

463, 497. 
Jay's Treaty, 497. 
Jefferson, Thomas, 456, 496, 498; 

President, 499, 500. 
Jeffreys, Cliief Justice, 430. 
Jehoi'akim, 44. 
Jena (ya'na), battle of, 487. 
Jer'ome, 194. 
Jerome of Prague, 325. 
Jerusalem captured by, Sargon, 41 ; 

Nebuchadnezzar, 44 ; Shishak, 51 ; 

Pompey, 157 ; Vespasian, 182 ; 

Pranks, in First Crusade, 273 ; 

Saladin, 273, 275. 
Jesuits, the Order founded, 390 ; 

missions, 422, 423. 
Joan of Arc, 319, 320. 
John Brown Raid, the, 550. 
John of Damascus, 223. 
Jolm, Lackland, k. of England, 292 ; 

quarrel with Innocent III. ; grants 

Magna Charta, 293 ; war with 

France, 294. 
John II., of Normandy, k. of France, 

313 ; defeated and captured by 

the English at Poitiers, 314. 
John II., of Portugal, 366, 367. VI., 

508. 
Johnson, Andrew, Vice-President ; 

becomes President ; impeached ; 

acquitted, 557. 
Johnston, A. S., General, 552. 
Johnston, J. E., General, 551, 555, 

556. 
Joseph II. , emp. of Prussia, 445. 
Josephine, wife of Bonaparte, 480, 

483, 489. 
Jose'phus, Flavins, Jewish histo- 
rian, 182. 
Josiah, k. of Judah, 52. 
JugCir'tha, of Numidia, 148. 



Ju'lian the Apostate, 196. 
Julian imperial house, 176. 
Julius II., Pope, 364. 
Junius Brutus, 120, 121. 
Justin'ian I., Eastern emp., 219 : 

wars, 220; his Civil Law, 221. 

II. a successor of I., 222. 
Ju'venal, Roman satirist, 189. 



K 

Kane, Arctic explorer, 561. 

Kansas, 550. 

Kant, German philosopher, 503. 

Karalorum, 283. 

Karl'ings, see Carolingians. 

Kearsarge, the, 555. 

Keats, English poet, 502. 

Kensett, 564. 

Kent, 562. 

Kentucky admitted, 497. 

Kepler, astronomer, 421. 

Khartoum (kar-toom'), 537. 

King George's War, 449. 

King William's War, 449. 

Klop'stock, German poet, 461. 

Knights, vows ; orders of, 273 ; Tem- 
plars suppressed, 308. 

Knox, John, Scotch preacher, 406, 
407. 

Ko'ran, the, 227, 232. 

Koscius'ko, Polish patriot, 447. 

Kossuth (kosh'oot), Louis, Hunga- 
rian patriot, 511, 516. 



La Bruyere (brii-e'yer'), French 

writer, 460. 
La Fayette (la'fa'yef), Marquis, 

456, 466, 467, 468, 469, 470, 471, 

493, 507, 511. 
La Fontaine, French writer, 460. 
La Hogue, battle of, 433. 
La'maism, 283. 



584 



INDEX 



Lancaster, house of, 352. 

Landor, English poet, 503. 

Landseer, 563. 

Langton, Stephen, 293. 

Languages, Aryan or Indo-Euro- 
pean, Semitic, Scythian or Tura- 
nian, unclassified. Table of, 7. 

La Rochefoucauld (rosh'foo'ko' ), 
French writer, 460. 

La Salle (la-sal'), French explorer, 

Latimer, 404. 

Latin colonies, 132. 

Latins, war with the, 129. 

Laud, William, Archbishop, 412. 

Law, John, financial scheme, 436. 

Lawrence, Sir Henry, 565. 

League, Catholic, 395. 

Learning, revival of, 371. 

Lee, Robert E., Confederate com- 
mander, crosses the Potomac, de- 
feated at Anti€tam, withdraws ; 
defeats Hooker at Chancellors- 
ville, crosses the Potomac, enters 
Pennsylvania, 553 ; defeated at 
Gettysburg, 554 ; at Five Forks, 
555 ; surrenders to Grant, 556. 

Lega'no, battle of, 275. 

Legends, Roman, 117. 

Legion of Honor founded, 483. 

Leibnitz (lip'nits), German philoso- 
pher, 461. 

Leighton, Sir Frederick, 563. 

Leipsic (llp'sik), battle of, 491. 

Leo I., the Great, Bishop of Rome, 
212, 218. 

Leo III., the Isaurian, 223. 

Leo X., Pope, excommunicates Lu- 
ther, 376. 

Leon'idas, k. of Sparta, falls at Ther- 
mopylae, 78. 

Lep'idus, enters second triumvirate, 
165. 

Lessing, German painter, 563. 

Lessing, German writer, 461. 



Leuc'tra, battle of, 96. 

Leverrier (le'va'ri-a'), 562. 

Lewes, Mrs., 562. 

Ley den (It'den), siege of, 392. 

Licin'ian Laws, 127, 147. 

Licin'ius, Roman emp., 191. 

Lincoln, Abraham, President, 550, 
551, 553; assassinated, 556. 

Livingstone, David, missionary and 
explorer in Africa, 561. 

Liv'}^, Roman historian, 168. 

Locke, John, 448, 461. ' 

Lollards, the, 317. 

Lombards, in Italy, 221 ; found the 
Lombard kingdom and states: 
conversion to Christianity, 222. 

London, Treaty of, 509. 

Londonderiy, siege of, 431. 

Longfellow, 563. 

Long-street, General, 554. 

Lords, House of, origin, 251, 296. 

Lorraine', ceded to Germany, 525. 

Lorraine', Claude, French painter, 
373. 

Lothar' of Saxony, emp., 265. 

Louis of Bavaria, emp. of Germany, 
deposed, 324. 

Louis VI., the Fat, k. of France, 
289. VII., contest with Inno- 
cent II., a leader in Second Cru- 
sade, 274, 289. VIII., 294, 296. 
IX., Saint, contest with barons, 
defeats Henry III. of England ; 
treaty, 295 ; leads Sixth and Sev- 
enth Crusades, 283, 294; civil 
policy, 295, 296. XL, 349 ; his 
struggles with the nobles ; contest 
with Charles the Bold, 350. XIL, 
363, 366. XIII., 398, 400, 425. 
XIV., 425-429, 432-436, 464. XV., 
464. XVL, 465-472. XVin.,507, 
508. 

Louis the Pious, successor of 
Charlemagne, 241. 

Louis Napoleon, Prince, 532. 



INDEX 



585 



Louis Philippe (loo'e' fe'leep'), 510, 
511, 513, 514. 

Louisburg, 449, 451. 

Louisiana, purchased, 499 ; secedes, 
551. 

Lowell, James Russell, 563. 

Loyo'la, Iguatius, founds Order of 
Jesuits, 390. 

Lu'cian, Roman writer, 189. 

Lu'cius Tarquin'ius, 119. 

Lucre'tius, Roman poet, 168. 

Lucknow, siege of, 536. 

Lun^'ville (lii'na'veel'), Peace of, 
481. 

Luther, Martin, activity as a re- 
former, 374-376 ; at the Wart- 
burg, translates the Bible, 379, 422. 

Liitzen (Itit'sen), battles at, 398, 491. 

Lycur'gus of Athens, 74. 

Lycurgus of Sparta, constitution of, 
71. 

Lysan'der, Spartan general, 91, 92, 
95. 

M 

Mac'ca-bees, the, 52, 110. 

Macaulay, 562. 

Macdonough, Commodore, 501. 

Macedonia, 99 ; see Philip and Alex- 
ander ; Empire divided after Alex- 
ander, 105-110. 

Machiavelli (mak'e-a-vel'lee), Ital- 
ian statesman, 372. 

MacMahon (mak'ma'ox'), Erench 
general, 524, 526; President, 532. 

Macri'nus, Roman emp., 190. 

Madeira, discovered, 333, 366, 

Madison, James, 459, 463 ; Presi- 
dent, 500, 501. 

Magellan, Portuguese navigator, 370. 

Magenta, battle of, 519. 

Ma'gi, 54. 
$ Mag'na ^Ihar'ta, given, 293 ; con- 
firmed, 296. 

Maine, settled, 420, 



Malebranche (mal'broNsh') , Erench 

writer, 460. 
Malthus, 562. 

Malvern Hill, battle of, 553. 
Mamelukes, the, 480. 
Manassas, battle of, 551 ; second 

battle, 553. 
Manchu Tartars seize throne of 

China, 422. 
Man'tine'a, battle of, 97. 
Marat (ma'ra'), 469, 471. 
Mar'athon, battle of, 77. 
Marco Polo, 298. 

Mardo'nius, expedition of, 77 ; con- 
quered at Plataea, 79. 
Maren'go, battle of, 481. 
Margaret of Parma, 391. 
Maria Theresa (te-ree'sa), Empress 

of Austria, 444, 445, 465. 
Marie Antoinette (ma're' aN'twa'- 

netO, 465, 476. 
Ma'rius, Caius, conquers Jugurtha, 

148 ; defeats the Cimbri and Teu- 

tones, 149 ; driven from Italy ; 

returns, massacres the leaders ; 

consul for seventh time, 152. 
Maryborough, Duke of, 431, 435, 436. 
Marshall, John, Chief Justice, 498, 

499. 
Martial, Roman writer, 189. 
Maryland, settled, 420. 
Mary, Queen of England, 403, 404. 
Mary, Queen of Scots, 403, 406-408. 
Mas'inis'sa, 144. 
Mason, 552. 

Massachusetts, settlement of, 419. 
Maxim 'ian, Roman emp., 191. 
Maximilian I,, of Germany, 357, 

364, 366. 
llayfloioer, the, 418. 
Mazarin (maz-a-reen'), 425, 427. 
Mazzini (mat-see'nee), Italian 

statesman, 512, 
McClellan, General George B., 551, 

553, 555, 



586 



INDEX 



McDowell, General, 553. 

Meade, General, 554. 

Medes, 42, 54 ; independence and 
conquests, 55. 

Medici (med'e-chee), house of the, 
358. 

Meg'acles, 74. 

Meissonier (ma'so'ne-a'), 564. 

Melan^h'thon, Philip, reformer, 376. 

Melkarth, 47, 65. 

Men'delssohn, 564. 

Menela'us, k. of Sparta, 66. 

Me'neg, first historic k. of Egypt, 26. 

Mer'ovin'gians, 214-216. 

Merrimac, the frigate, 552. 

Messe'nian wars, 73. 

Metternich (met'er-niiv), 507. 

Metz (mets), 525. 

Mexico, republic established, 508 ; 
war with United States (see 
Texas) , Taylor victorious at Palo 
Alto, Monterey, and Buena Vista, 
648 ; Scott captures Vera Cruz, 
Mexico ; treaty of Guadaloupe 
Hidalgo, 549 ; Maximilian placed 
on the throne by Louis Napoleon ; 
deposed and shot; republic re- 
stored, 559. 

Mexico, city, captured, 549. 

Meyerbeer (mi'er-bar'), 564. 

Michelangelo, Italian artist and poet, 
372. 

Middle Ages, extent and character- 
istics, 199 ; rise of the burgher 
class, 297 ; manufactures and 
trade, 297-299 ; guilds, 299 ; mo- 
nasticism and theology, 300 ; liter- 
ature and learning, 301 ; art, 302. 

Mile'tus destroyed, 77. 

Mill, John Stuart, 562. 

Millais (mil-la'), 563. 

Millet (me'ya'), 564. 

Milti'ades, Athenian general, 77, 
78.^ 

Milton, English poet, 422. 



Minnesingers, 302. 

Mirabeau (me'ra^bo'), French states- 
man, 466. 

Mississippi secedes, 551. 

Missouri admitted with slavery ; 
Missouri Compromise, 546, 550. 

Mithrida'tes V., the Great, k. of 
Pontus ; war with Eome, massa- 
cre of Italians in Asia, 151 ; army 
defeated in Chaeronea, 152; driven 
by Pompey out of Pontus ; sui- 
cide, 157. 

Mogul empire in India, 423. 

Moham'nied, early history, 225 ; 
Hegira ; cliaracter, 226 ; the Ko- 
ran, 227. 11. 360. 

Mohammedan power, arises among 
Arabians, 226 ; see Arabic Con- 
quests ; the Ommiads, 228; the 
Abassides ; Bagdad, its greatness, 
229 ; Turks force their way into 
the Empire, 230 ; a Turk gains 
military command ; in Spain, Cali- 
phate of Cordova, splendor under 
AbderrahmanllL; anarchy; petty 
Moslem kingdoms, 231 ; charac- 
teristics of Arabians, 232 ; see 
Sixain. 

Moli^re (mo'leer'), French writer of 
comedy, 460. 

Monasticism, orders of monks ; cul- 
tivation of theology and philoso- 
phy, 300. 

Money, paper, issued during Ameri- 
can Revolution, 459. 

Mongolian invasion, in Asia and 
Europe, under Genghis Khan and 
his successors, 282, 283. 

Monitor, the ironclad, 553. 

Monks, orders of, see Monasticism. 

Monmouth, battle of, 457. 

Monmouth's Rebellion, 430. 

Monroe, James, President, 543. 

Monroe Doctrine, 540. 

Montcalm', General, 450, 451. 



INDEX 



587 



Montene'gro, 530, 531. 

Monterey (mon-te-ra'), battle of, 

548. 
Montesquieu (moN'tes-ke-u'), French 

political writer, 460. 
Montezu'ma, k. of Mexico, 370. 
Montgomery, General, 456. 
Moore, English poet, 503. 
More, Thomas, 372. 
Morgar'ten, battle of, 326. 
Moscow burned, 490. 
Motley, 562. 

Mo'zart, German composer, 503. 
Mum'mius, destroyed Corinth, 144. 
Munda, battle of, 163. 
Murillo (moo-ree'lyo), Spanish 

painter, 373. 
My-e'ale, battle of, 79. 
My'lae, naval battle at, 134. 
Mythol'ogy, Eoman, 116. 



N 

Nabopolas'sar, 43. 

Names, Koman, 122. 

Nantes (nants). Edict of, 396; re- 
voked, 427. 

Napoleon, see Bonaparte. 

Nar'ses, general and governor in the 
East, 220 ; recalled to Constanti- 
nople, but invites the Lombards 
into Italy, 221, 222. 

National Eepublicans, see Whigs. 

Navarino (nava-ree'no), battle of, 
509. 

Navarre (navar'), 331. 

Neb'u-ehadnez'zar, 32, 43 ; con- 
quests, 44 ; brilliant reign, 45. 

Nelson, Lord, English admiral, 480, 
486. 

Nep'tune, 65. 

Nero, Roman emp., 178 ; persecu- 
tion of the Christians ; a builder, 
179; death, 181. 

Ner'va, Roman emp., 183. 



Netherlands, condition at accession 
of Philip II. ; P.'s tyranny and 
its results, 391, 392 ; attack on, 426. 

Neustria, 215, 216. 

New England, 420 ; league, 421. 

Newfoundland (nu'f ond-land') , 
ceded to England, 436. 

New Hampshire settled, 420. 

New Haven settled, 419. 

New Jersey settled, 449. 

New Mexico surrendered to United 
States, 549. 

New Orleans captured, 552. 

Newton, Sir Isaac, 462. 

New York takes its name, 420. 

New Zealand, English colony, 540. 

Ney (na). Marshal, French general, 
492, 493, 494. 

Nicae'a, council of, 194 ; captured 
from Saracens, 272. 

Nic'colo (nek'kolo), of Pisa, sculp- 
tor, 302. 

Nicholas I, , of Russia, 509. 

Nicholas V., Pope, 329. 

Nig'ias, Peace of, 90. 

Mebelungenlied, the, 302. 

Nihilists, assassination of Russian 
Czar, 531. 

Nile, battle on the, 480 ; sources 
discovered, 561. 

Nimwegen (nim'vagen). Treaty of, 
426, 428. 

Nin'eveh, 39, 40 ; fall of, 43. 

Ni'nus, 40. 

Nirvana (nerva'na), 23. 

Nonconformists, 409. 

Norman invasion of England, battle 
of Hastings, 248 ; N. spirit and 
influence, 249 ; government, 250 ; 
buildings, 251. 

Norman kingdom of Naples and 
Sicily, 253. 

North Carolina, 448 ; secedes, 551. 

Northern kingdoms, the three, be- 
fore the Union of Calmar, 322. 



588 



INDEX 



North GermanConfederation formed, 
523. 

Northmen, the, incursions, settle- 
ments, 245 ; discoveries, Icehxud, 
Greenland, America, 240 ; Danes 
in England, 246, 247 ; see Norman 
invasion. 

Northumberland, 403, 404. 

Nova Scotia ceded to England, 436. 

Nullification crisis, 547. 

Nu'ma, 118. 

Numan'tia, 146. 

Numeria'nus, Roman emp., 191. 

NU'remberg, Peace of, 380. 

Nystadt (ne'stat), Peace of, 439. 

O 

Gates, Titus, 429. 

O'Connell, Irish statesman, 540. 

Octa'vius, Caius Octavius Caesar, 
called Octavianus, enters second 
triumvirate ; with Antonius gains 
battle of Philippi, 165 ; defeats 
Antonius at Actium ; receives title 
of Augustus ; three triumphs, 
166 ; see Augustus. 

Odoa'cer, first barbarian k. of Italy, 
196, 213 ; defeated by Theodoric, 

_ 213. 

O'dys'seus (-sus), 67. 

Od'pssey, the, 67, 70. 

Oed'ipus (ed'ipus) , 65. 

Oersted (er'sted), 561. 

Olympiads, the ; first Olympiad, 

_ 776 B.C., 70. 

Olym'pic Games, 70. 

Olym'pus, Mount, 65. 

Opium War between England and 
China, 512, 559 ; see China. 

Orange, see William, Prince of 
Orange. 

Or'igen, 194. 

Or'muzd, 54. 

Ostracism at Athens. 75, 78. 



Ostrogoths, 205, 213, 220. 

Otlio, Roman emp., 181. 

Otis, James, 453. 

Otto I. , the Great, 244 ; k. of Ger- 
many, becomes k. of the Lom- 
bards, and emp. in Rome, es- 
tablishing the " Holy Roman 
Empire of the German Nation," 
258, 259. 

Otto II. and III., emps. of Romano- 
German Empire, 260. lY. , excom- 
municated and deposed, 278, 294. 

(Judenarde, battle of, 436. 

Overbeck, 563. 

Ov'id, Roman poet, 168. 

Oxford, 301. 



Paine, Thomas, 473. 

Palestine, the Maccabees ; the 
Idumaean princes, 110. 

Palestrina, Italian composer, 373. 

Palmerston, 552. 

Pa'lo Al'to, battle of, 548. 

Panor'mus, battle at, 135. 

Pan'theon, Roman, 185. 

Papacy, recognition of, by the em- 
jDcrors ; Pseud o-Isidorian decre- 
tals, 244 ; relation to the English 
Church, 250 ; triumph of, in con- 
test with Frederick Barbarossa, 
275 ; in the thirteenth century, 
340; see Babylonian Captivity; 
reforming councils, 340 ; 359 ; 
temporal power lost, 527 ; see 
Pius IX. ; papal infallibilitj^ 
527 ; conflict with Prussia, 533. 

Papin'ian, Roman jurist, 189. 

Paris, son of Priam, Q^. 

Paris surrenders to the Germans, 
525. 

Parkman, 562. 

Parliament, British, 310 ; the Short 
P., the Long P., 412. 

Parnell, 542. 



INDEX 



589 



Parrha'sius (parra'sliius) , painter, 
88. 

Par'thenon, the, 82. 

Parties in America, 496. 

Patricians, 122. 

Patrick, missionary to Ireland, 217. 

Paul, the Apostle, 171, 172. 

Paul Jones, 468. 

Pausa'nias, Spartan regent and 
general, 79, 80. 

Pavi'a, battle of, 378. 

Peale, 564. 

Peary, Arctic explorer, 561. 

Peasant insurrection in England, 
316. 

Peasants' War, 379. 

Peel, Sir Robert, 513. 

Pela'gius, 194. 

Pelas'gians, the, 62. 

Peloponne'sian War, 89. 

Pennsylvania settled, 449. 

Pennsylvania, University of, 
founded, 452. 

Penn, William, 449. 

Perian'der, 74. 

Per'icles, Athenian statesman, 82, 
83, 89, 90. 

Perry, Commodore, victory on Lake 
Erie, 501. 

Perry, Commodore, treaty vp^ith 
Japan, 560. 

Per'seiis, k. of Macedonia, 141. 

Persians, home, religion, 54 ; con- 
quests, under Cyrus, of Lydia, 
Babylon, Greek colonies, 55 ; con- 
quest of Egypt, 55 ; government, 
56 ; armies, traits, 57. 

Per'sius, Roman satirist, 189. 

Persian Wars, see Greece. 

Per'tinax, Roman emp., 190. 

Peter, the apostle, 172. 

Peter L, the Great, Czar of Russia, 
victory at Pultov^a, 439 ; career, 
440. 

Peter the Hermit, 269. 



Petition of Right, 411. 

Pe'trar-eh, Italian poet, 329, 371. 

Pha'ros, lighthouse of, 107. 

Pharsa'lus, battle of, 162. 

Phid'ias, Greek sculptor, 82, 87. 

Philadelphia founded, 449, 453. 

Philip II., Augustus, k. of France, 
292, 294; see lliird Crusade. 
III., 306. IV.,therair, war with 
Edward I. , 306 ; conflict with 
Boniface VIII., 307 ; suppresses 
Knights Templars, 308. V., 309. 

Philip, k. of Macedon ; enters into 
Grecian affairs, 99 ; opposed by 
Demosthenes ; victory at Chae- 
ronea, 100 ; assassinated, 101. 
III., 141. 

Philip, Roman emp., 191. 

Philip II., of Spain, 391,394,404,408. 

Philippi, battle of, 165. 

Phillips, Wendell, 548. 

Philosophy, early Greek, 75, 76, 

Pho'cas, Eastern emp,, 222. 

Phoenicians, home, arts and com- 
merce, 46 ; government and reli- 
gion, loss of independence, 47. 

Pierce, Franklin, President, 549. 

Pilate, Pontius, 170, 171, 

Pilgrimages, see Crusades. 

Pilgrims, settle at Plymouth, 418 ; 
see Puritans. 

Pinckney, 498. 

Pin'dar, Greek lyric poet, 75. 

Pip'in of Heristal, 216, 

Pip'in the Short, k. of the Franks, 
216 ; crowned by the Pope ; founds 
temporal kingdom of the Pope in 
Italy, 234. 

Pip'ins, family of the, 216. 

Pisis'tratus of Athens, 74. 

Pit'tacus of Lesbos, 74. 

Pittsburg Landing, battle of, 552, 

Pitt, William, 450, 454. 

Pitt, William, the younger, 473, 
474, 481, 485. 



590 



INDEX 



Pius IX., Pope, 516 ; doctrine of 
the Immaculate Conception, see 
Papacy. 

Pizar'ro, Francisco, conquers Peru, 
370. 

Plague, the Great, 428. 

Plassey, battle of, 446. 

Platae'a, 77 ; battle of, 79 ; 90. 

Pla'to, philosopher, 93. 

Plau'tus, Roman poet, 145. 

Plebe'ians, 122. 

Plin'y, the younger, 184, 189. 

Plu'tarch, Greek writer, 189. 

Pocahon'tas, 418. 

Poe, Edgar Allan, 563. 

Poictiers (pwa'ti-a'), battle of, 313. 

Poland, constitution, 334. 

Poland, partition of, 447 ; uprising 
crushed, 511. 

Politiques (po'le-teek'), the, 395. 

Polk, James K., President, 549. 

Polyb'ius, 144, 145. 

Pol'ycarp, Christian bishop and 
martyr, 193. 

Polycle'tus, Greek sculptor, 87. 

Polyc'ra-tes of Samos, 74. 

P61ygn5'tus, 88. 

Pompe'ii(-yi), 173, 183. 

Pompe'ius, Cneius (na'yus), aids 
Sulla, 152, 154 ; destroys pirates, 
i 156 ; conquers Mithridates, over- 

throws the Seleucidae, captures 
Jerusalem, triumph at Rome, 157 ; 
enters first triumvirate, 159 ; 
rupture with Caesar, 161 ; flight 
from Italy ; defeat at Pharsalus ; 
assassination, 162. 

Pontiac, 452. 

Pope, English poet, 462. 

Pope, General, 552. 

Porter, Miss, English writer, 503. 

Port Hudson captured, 554. 

Portugal, commerce and navigation, 
332, 366. 

Posei'don, 65. 



Powers, 563. 

Powiiatan, 418. 

Pragmatic Sanction, the, 442. 

Prague, Peace of, 523. 

Prague, university at, founded, 
324. 

Presbyterianism, established in 
Scotland, 431. 

Prescott, historian, 562. 

Pretender, first, 434 ; second, 438. 

Pri'ani, k. of Troy, m. 

Prime Minister, first, 437. 

Pro'bus, Roman emp., 191. 

Proco'pius, historian, 223. 

Proprietary colonial governments, 
452. 

Protestants, origin of term, 380. 

Prussia, growth of power of, 442 ; 
Frederick the Great, 443 ; result 
of the Seven Years' War, 445 ; 
war with France, 470 ; attitude 
towards Bonaparte, 486 ; defeated 
at Jena and Auerstadt, 487 ; Holy 
Alliance, 507 ; new Constitution, 
515 ; rivalship with Austria, 
520 ; Austro-Prussian War, 523 ; 
Franco-Prussian War, 524 ; the 
new German empire, 525 ; con- 
flict with the Vatican, 533. 

Psammet'ichus I., 32. 

Ptol'emies, kingdom of the, 105. 

Ptol'emy I. (tol'e-me), 105. II., 
Philadelphus, 107. III., Eu-er'- 
getes, 107. 

Punic wars, first, 134 ; second, 136 ; 
third, 144. 

Puritans, 409, 410 ; see Pilgrims ; 
settle on IMassachusetts Bay ; 
found Boston, 419. 

Putnam, Israel, 455, 456. 

Pyd'na, battle of, 141. 

Pym, John, 413. 

Pyramids, 27. 

Pyr'rhus, 131. 

Py-thag'oras, philosopher, 76. 



INDEX 



591 



Q 

Quakers, 449, 453. 
Quebec taken, 451, 456. 
Queen Anne's War, 449. 
Quintil'ian, Roman writer, 189. 



R 

Rabelais (ra'bla') , Erencli physician 
and writer, 422. 

Racine (ra'seen'), Frencli dramatic 
writer, 460. 

Radagai'sus, Gothic general, 209, 
210. 

Raleigh, Sir Walter, 411, 417. 

Ram'seglL, k. of Egypt, 31. III., 32. 

Raph'ael, Italian painter, 373. 

Raymond VI., 294. 

Reformation, the, in Germany, 374, 
386 ; in Switzerland, 381 ; in 
Scandinavia, 382 ; in Italy, 
Catholic reaction, 390 ; in Eng- 
land, see Henry VIII.; progress 
under Edward VI., 403 ; in Scot- 
land, 406. 

Reform Bill in England, 512. 

Regicides, punishment of, 428. 

Regulus, 135. 

Reign of Terror, 475. 

Religion, Roman, 123. 

Rembrandt, Dutch painter, 373. 

Renaissance, the, 365. 

Republicans, or Democrats, in 
America, 496, 497. 

Republican party, 550, 557, 558. 

Restoration in England, 428. 

Reuchlin (roiK'lin), John, 372. 

Revival of learning, 371. 

Revolution of 1688, 431. 

Revolution, American, opening, 454- 
456 ; Declaration of Independence, 
456 ; events of the war, 456-458. 

Revolution, Erench, 464-494 ; tri- 
umph of the Third Estate ; new 



constitution, 466 ; flight of the 
King, 468 ; Legislative Assembly, 
469 ; war with Austria and Prus- 
sia, 470 ; execution of the King, 
472 ; first coalition against 
Erance, 473 ; fall of Girondists ; 
Jacobin Revolution, 474 ; Bona- 
parte ; Reign of Terror, 475 ; fall 
of Robespierre ; constitution of 
1795, 479 ; see Bonaparte. R. of 
1830, Charles X. abdicates, Louis 
Philippe chosen king, 511. R. 
of 1848, Louis Napoleon chosen 
President, 514. 

Revolution in Spain, 530. 

Reynolds, English painter, 503. 

Rhap'sodists, the, 67. 

Rhode Island founded, 419. 

Ricardo, 562. 

Richard I., the Lion-Hearted (Coeur- 
de-Lion), k. of England, held 
prisoner by Duke of Austria, 292 ; 
see Third Crusade. II., peasant 
insurrection, 316 ; deposed and 
murdered, 317. III., 352; victor 
in battle of Towton, defeated at 
Bosworth, 353. 

Richardson, English writer, 462. 

Richelieu (resh'le-u'), Cardinal, 396, 
398, 400, 425. 

Richmond, capital of Virginia ; cap- 
ital of the Confederacy, 551, 553, 
555 ; captured, 556. 

Ridley, 404. 

Rienzi, 329. 

Rigveda (va'da), 21. 

Robert the Strong, 242. 

Robertson, English historian, 462. 

Robespierre (ro'bes-peer), 469, 471, 
479. 

Rochambeau (ro'shoN'bo'), Count, 
458. • 

Rogers, English poet, 503. 

Ro'land, hero of romance, 236. 

Ro'land, and Madame R., 476. 



592 



INDEX 



Roma'noff, Michael, founder of 
present dynasty of Czars, 3U3. 

Eomano-Germanic empire, founda- 
tions laid by Henry the Fowler, 
258; established by Otto the 
Great ; in theory, the union of 
the world-state and the world- 
church ; politically, the union of 
Germany and the Empire, 259 ; 
contests between the Empire and 
the Church ; latter predominant, 
262, 265. 

Rome, site and architecture, 180 ; 
place in history ; inhabitants of 
ancient Italy, 113; Italy and 
Greece ; the Greeks and Romans, 
115 ; religion ; origin of the Ro- 
mans, 116 ; under the kings, 
legends, 117 ; classes of the people, 
122 ; magistrates, religion, 123 ; 
under the patricians ; Plebeian 
Assembly, 125 ; Decemvirs, 126 ; 
city sacked by the Gauls, Licinian 
Laws, 127 ; Samnite wars, 129 ; 
war with Pyrrhus, 131 ; Punic 
wars with Carthage, 134-144 ; 
conquers Cisalpine Gaul, 135 ; 
Sicily and Spain conquered, 140 ; 
Macedonia conquered, 141 ; Cor- 
inth destroyed, 144 ; literature 
and philosoi)hy, morals, 145 ; 
Cimbri and Teutons defeated, 
149 ; Social War, allies receive 
citizenship, 150 ; Mithridatic war ; 
civil conflicts, 151 ; Pompey, 
Cicero, 154 ; Caesar, 158 ; trium- 
virates, 159, 164 ; Augustus, ex- 
tent of the Empire, literature, 167 ; 
life, 172 ; emperors of Augustan 
house, 177-181 ; great fire, 179 ; 
rebuilt, 180 ; moral degeneracy in 
the Empire, 187 ; literature, 189 ; 
emperors made by the soldiers, 
190, 191 ; absolute monarchy, 191- 
196 ; Christianity predominant, 



downfall of heathenism, 192-196 ;• 
overthrow of the Empire gradual, 
203 ; five causes, 204 ; three races 
of barbarians, 205 ; city sacked 
by the Goths, 210 ; by the Vandals, 
213 ; fall of the Western Empire, 
213; the Church, 218; Eastern 
Empire grows weaker and more 
corrupt, 219 ; Justinian's wars, 
220 ; Lombards in Italy, 221 ; 
religious controversies, literature, 
223 ; city captured by the Ger- 
mans, 380 ; becomes seat of Italian 
government under Victor Em- 
manuel, 527. 

Romulus, 117. 

Rosa, Salvator, Italian painter, 373. 

Roses, Wars of the, 320, 352 ; ended 
by victory and accession of 
Henry VII. ; effects, 353. 

Kouma'nia, 531. 

Roundheads, in English civil war, 
413. 

Rousseau (roo'so'), French writer, 
460. 

Royal colonial governments, 452. 

Rubens, Dutch painter, 373, 

Rudolph, Count of Hapsburg, 
founder of the house of Haps- 
burg ; elected emp. of Germany, 
but not crowned, 323, 324. 

Runny mede, 293. 

Ruskin, 564. 

Russell, Lord John, 552. 

Russia, history, 335 ; rulers, 360- 
362 ; growth of power, 439 ; Peter 
the Great, 440 ; Seven Years' 
War, 445; Catherine II., parti- 
tion of Poland, 447 ; invaded by 
Napoleon, 490 ; Crimean War, 
518 ; Russo-Turkish War, 530 ; 
Nihilists, 531 ; Afghanistan, 536. 

Rye House Plot, 430. 

Ryswick (riz'wik). Peace of, 433, 
434. 



INDEX 



593 



Sado'wa, battle of, 523. 

Sagun'tum, 136. 

Saint Helena, island of, 493. 

Sal'adin, Saracen leader, defeated 
near Ascalon, 275 ; victor at Ti- 
berias, retakes Jerusalem, 275 ; 
concessions after Third Crusade, 
276. 

Sal'amis, battle of, 79. 

Sal'ic Law, 309, 312. 

Sal'lust, Koman historian, 168. 

Sama'ria, captured by Sargon, 41, 51. 

Samnite wars, first, 129 ; second 
and third, 130. 

San Steph'ano, Peace of, 530. 

San'ta A'na, General, 548. 

Sappho (saf'o), Greek lyric poet, 75. 

Sar'agens, see Arabic conquests ; 
225, 236, 247. 

Sardanapa'ius I., 41. 

Sargon I., 41, 47. 

Saul, first k. of Hebrews, 50. 

Savonaro'la, Jerome, 359, 363. 

Saxons, 205, 212 ; conquest of 
Britain, 216 ; conversion, 217. 

Saxon, Franconian, and Hohenstau- 
fen imperial houses, 257. 

Scandinavian countries, conversion 
of, 333, 334 ; Protestantism in, 
381, 382. 

Schiller, German poet, 503. 

Schleswig-Hol'stein (shles'vio-hol'- 
stin), relation to Denmark, 520 ; 
events leading to war, 521 ; 
Austro-Prussian War ; S.-H. be- 
comes part of Prussia, 523. 

Schumann (shoo'man), 564. 

Schwanthaler (shuan'ta'ler), 563. 

Scipio, Pub'lius Aemilia'nus, takes 
and destroys Carthage, 144 ; cap- 
tures Numantia, 146. 

Scip'io, Pub'lius Corne'lius Africa'- 
nus, 139, 140. 

GEN. HIST. — 38 



Scip'io, Pub'lius Corne'lius, 137. 

Sco'tists, 301. 

Scotland and England united, 431, 
436. 

Scott, Walter, Scottish poet and 
novelist, 503, 562. 

Scott, Winfield, General, 549, 551. 

Sco'tus, Duns, 301. 

Secession, Ordinance of, 550, 551. 

Secession, War of, Port Sumter at- 
tacked and taken ; Confederate 
States recognized as belligerents 
by Great Britain and Erance ; 
Union defeat at Manassas, 551 ; 
Confederate privateers ; Union 
successes in the West, 552 ; the 
3Ierrimac and the Monitor ; Con- 
federate successes in the East ; 
Emancipation Proclamation ; Con- 
federate advances, 553 ; Union 
victory at Gettysburg ; Yicksburg 
captured ; Union victories at 
Chattanooga, 554 ; Grant made 
lieutenant-general, takes com- 
mand of Army of the Potomac ; 
Sherman marches through Georgia, 
South and North Carolina ; Sheri- 
dan's victory over Lee at Five 
Eorks, 555 ; Lee surrenders to 
Grant ; Richmond taken ; John- 
ston surrenders to Sherman ; 
Jefferson Davis captured, 556 ; 
Constitutional amendments, 556, 
557 ; reconstruction, 557. 

Sedan, battle of, 524. 

Sedgemoor, battle of, 430. 

Seleu'-eus I., Nica'tor, 109. 

Se'lim, Turkish Sultan, 360. 

Seminole Indians, 543. 

Semir'amis, 40. 

Semitic race, periods of power, re- 
ligions, 5 ; languages, 8. 

Senate, Roman, 122, 

Sen'eca, Roman philosopher, death, 
178, 189. 



594 



INDEX 



Sen'lac, see Hastings. 

Senna^h'erib, 42, 52. 

Septim'ius Seve'rus, Roman emp., 
190. 

Sep'tuagint, the, 107. 

Serfs, llussiaii, eiiiancipated, 531. 

Serto'rius, 154. 

Servia, 530, 531. ^ 

Ser'vius Tul'lius, 119. 

Sesos'tris (or Ramses II.), k. of 
Egypt, 31. 

Settlement, Act of, 432. 

Seven against Thebes, G5. 

Seven Years' War, 445, 450. 

Seward, William H., 552, 556. 

Sex'tus, Tarquin'ius, 121. 

Shakespeare, English poet, 422. 

Sha'maism, 283. 

Shelley, English poet, 502. 

Sheridan, Philip, General, 555. 

Sheridan, Richard Rrinsley, 446. 

Sherman, W. T., General, 554 ; 
" March to the Sea," 555, 556. 

Shiloh, see Pittsburg Landing. 

Sibe'ria, banishment to, by Russia, 
531. 

Sicilian expedition, 91. 

Sicilian kingdom, the "Two Sici- 
lies," 280, 281. 

Sicily, west, first Roman province, 
135. 

Sidney, Algernon, 430. 

Si'don, 46 ; destroyed by Sennach- 
erib, 42. 

Sig'ismimd, emp. of Germany ; con- 
demnation and death of Huss and 
Jerome of Prague, 325. 

Simon de Montfort, conducts cru- 
sade against Albigenses, 294 ; son 
of former, leads barons in contest 
with Henry III. of England ; 
through him Parliament assumes 
its present form ; defeats the k. ; 
defeated and slain, 296. 

Simon 'i-deii, <ji'^'ek lyric poet, 75. 



Six Nations, Indians, 420. 

Slavery, negro, introduced into the 
New World by the Spaniards, 417 ; 
in Virginia, 418, 420, 459; abol- 
ished in British colonies, 512 ; 
struggle in the American Con- 
gress ; Missouri Compromise, 546 ; 
causes War of Secession, 550 ; 
Emancipation Proclamation, 553 ; 
amendments to the Constitution, 
556, 557 ; see Anti-Slavery. 

Slavery, Roman, 175. 

Slidell, 552. 

Smalcald, League of, 380, 386. 

Smith, Adam, Scotch economic 
writer, 462. 

Smith, Captain John, 418. 

Social War in Italy, 150. 

So'cii, 133. 

Soc'ra-tes, Athenian philosopher, 
85, 93. 

Solferi'no, battle of, 519. 

Solomon, k. of Hebrews, 50. 

So'lon, regulation of, 73. 

Somerset, 403. 

Soph'o-€les, Athenian tragic poet, 
84, 85. 

South America, states developed, 
508; in Brazil, Dom Pedro II. 
dethroned and a republic declared, 
559 ; war between Bolivia and 
Peru, Chili gaining many advan- 
tages, 559. 

South Carolina, 448 ; nullification 
laws, 547 ; secession, 550, 

South Sea Company, speculation, 
437. 

Spain, Moors in, 229 ; crusade 
against them for eight hundred 
years ; the Cid ; Christian king- 
doms unite under Alfonso VI., 
victorious in battle of Tolosa, 281 ; 
Portugal, Castile, Aragon ; Gra- 
nada alone remains to the Moors, 
282 ; historical geography, 330 ; 



INDEX 



595 



four kingdoms, 331, 332 ; Ferdi- 
nand and Isabella ; persecution 
of the Moors, 355 ; discovery of 
America, 367-371 ; Charles V. 
and the Reformation, 377 ; Philip 
II. and the revolt of the Nether- 
lands, 391, 392; colonization in 
America, 417 ; War of the Spanish 
Succession, 434-436 ; invasion by 
Napoleon, 487 ; 507 ; revolution in, 
530; 543. 

Spain and Portugal, historical geog- 
raphy, 330. 

Spanish Succession, War of the, 434- 
436. 

Sparta, Constitution of Lycurgus, 

71 ; laws and customs, hegemony, 

72 ; jealousy of Athens, 81. 
Spar'tacus, 154. 

Speke, 561. 

Spinoza, Holland philosopher, 421. 

Spires, Diet of, 380. 

Spohr (spor), 564. 

Stael, de (de-stal), Madame, French 

writer, 502. 
Stamp Act, 453, 454. 
Stanley, African explorer, 561. 
Stark, General, 455. 
Star Chamber, Court of the, 355, 

412 ; abolished, 413. 
States General, of France, first 

meeting, 308; 465. 
States in Italy, 327. 
St. Bartholomew, massacre of, 395. 
Steele, English writer, 462. 
Stephen, k. of England, 289, 290. 
Stephenson, George, 561. 
Steuben, Baron, 456. 
Stevens, Alexander H., 551, 
Stevenson, 562. 
Stil'i-eho, Roman general, defeats the 

barbarians ; assassinated, 209, 210. 
Stone Age, older or Paleolithic, 9 ; 

later or Neolithic, 10. 
Story, American legal writer, 562. 



Story, American sculptor, 563. 

Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 562. 

Stuart, Mary, 393. 

Sue'vi, 205, 209, 211. 

Sul'la, Lucius Cornelius, consul, 
receives command of the army 
against Mithridates, overcomes 
resistance of Marius, 151 ; over- 
comes Mithridates, returns to 
Rome, massacres his enemies, re- 
makes the constitution, 152. 

Sully, 396. 

Sutri, synod of, 261. 

Sweden, 334 ; the Reformation in, 
382 ; Gustavus Adolphus, k. of, 
victorious at Liitzen, Adolphus 
slain, 398 ; 432 ; fall of, 439. 

Swegen, 246. 

Swift, English writer, 462. 

Switzerland, ceded to Germany ; 
growth of the Confederacy, 325 ; 
victories, freedom, 326 ; Reforma- 
tion in, 381. 

Syr'acuse, 91, 138. 

Syrian kingdom, 109. 



Tac'itus, Roman historian, 179, 184, 
189. 

Taiping (ti'-ping'), rebellion, see 
China. 

Tal'leyrand, French statesman, 466, 
468, 492. 

Tam'erlane, Mongol leader, con- 
queror of Asia, 283 ; defeats the 
Turks, 338. 

Tan'agra, battle of, 81. 

Taren'tum, 131. 

Tariff, protective, first, in America, 
543 ; McKinley Bill, 558. 

Tarquin'ius Pris'cus, 119, 

Tarquin'ius Super'bus, 120, 

Tarshish, 46. 

Tartars, see Mongolian invasion. 



596 



INDEX 



Tasso, Italian poet, 422. 

Ta-yg'e-tus, Mount, 72. 

Tea thrown overboard, 454. 

Telem'a-ehus, a monk, causes the 
cessation of gladiatorial shows, 
209. 

Tell, William, 326. 

Tennessee, admitted, 497 ; secedes, 
551. 

Tennyson, Alfred, 563. 

Ten Thousand, retreat of the, 95. 

Ter'ence, Roman poet, 145. 

Test Act, 429. 

Testry, battle of, 216. 

Tetzel (tet'sel), a monk, 375. 

Teu'to-nes, defeated, 149. 

Teutons, tribes, character, 205 ; wor- 
ship, 206 ; invade Britain, 216, 250. 

Texas, 543 ; declares its independ- 
ence ; annexed to United States, 
causing Mexican War, 548. 

Thackeray, 562. 

Tha'les of Mile'tus, philosopher, 75. 

Thap'sus, battle of, 163. 

Thebes in Egypt, dominion of, 28. 

Thebes in Greece, 81 ; contest with 
Sparta, 96 ; hegemony, 97 ; 100, 
101. 

The-mis'tO€les, Athenian general, 
78, 79, 80. 

Theodo'ra, Empress of the East, 224. 

Theod'oric, k. of the Ostrogoths, 
reigns in Italy, 213, 214. 

Theodo'sius (-shTiis) I., Roman 
emp., 194, 196; imperial house, 
207 ; checks the Goths, 208. II., 
212. 

Thermop'ylae, battle of, 78. 

Thespis, 85, 

Thiers (te-ar'), 510, 513, 531 ; Presi- 
dent of France, 532. 

Thirty Years' AVar ; origin, Bohemian 
struggle, 397 ; events in Sweden, 
Gustavus Adolphus ; France after 
Henry IV., 398-401. 



Thomas, General, 554, 555. 

Tho 'mists, 301. 

Thorwaldsen (tor'wald-sen), Danish 

sculptor, 503. 
Thoth'mes III., k. of Egypt, 29. 
Thrasybu'lus, 92. 
Thu-Qyd'i-des, Greek historian, 90, 

94. 
Tibe'rias, battle of, 275. 
Tibe'rius, Roman emp., 177. 
Tici'nus, battle of, 137. 
Ticonderoga, 450, 451, 456. 
Tig'lath Pi-le'ser I., 41. 11. , 41. 
Tilden, Samuel J., 558. 
Tilly, von (fon til'le), German 

general, 397, 398. 
Tintoretto, Italian painter, 373. 
Titian (tish'an), Italian painter, 373. 
Tl'tus, Roman emp., 183. 
Toleration Act, 432. 
Torbay, 431. 

Tory, rise of name, 429, 430. 
Tower of London, 252. 
Trafalgar, battle of, 486. 
Trajan, Roman emp., 183; letter to 

Pliny, 184. 
Trasume'nus, battle of, 137. 
Trent affair, the, 552. 
Trent, Council of, 387, 390. 
Trenton, battle of, 457. 
Trib'unes, Roman, 125 ; military, 

126. 
Trium'virate, first, 159 ; second, 165. 
Trojan War, 65. 
Troubadours, 301. 
Troyes (trwa), Treaty of, 319. 
Truce of Gpd, 261. 
Trumbull, American painter, 503. 
Tudors and Stuarts, house of, 354. 
Tul'lus Hostil'ius, 119. 
Turanian Group, 5 ; languages, 5, 8. 
Turenne', French general, 426. 
Turgenieff (toor-gen'ef), 563. 
Turgot (tllr'go'), French statesman, 

465. 



INDEX 



597 



Turks, press into Saracen empire ; 
Seljukian T. take from Arabs 
eastern sovereignty, 230, 266, 268 ; 
defeated at Dorylaeum, 272 ; Otto- 
man T. , 337 ; conquer at Nicopo- 
lis ; defeated by Tamerlane at An- 
cyra, 338 ; take Constantinople ; 
government, 339 ; in Italy, 359 ; 
conquer Greek empire ; take Alex- 
andria; enormous Ottoman em- 
pire, 360 ; checked at Vienna, 380 ; 
defeated on St. Gothard, Vienna, 
Zenta,428; 447,480; revolt against 
Sultan, Turkish atrocities ; Russo- 
Turkish War ; Peace of San Steph- 
ano, 530 ; Congress at Berlin, 
531. 

Turner, English painter, 503, 563. 

Twelve Tables, Laws of, 126. 

Tycho Brahe (bra), astronomer, 421. 

Tyrants in Greece, 74 ; in Italy, 
327. 

Tyrants, the Thirty, 92. 

Tyre, 46, 47 ; taken, 42, 45, 47. 

Tyr-tae'us, Athenian poet, 73. 



U 

Ul'phtlas, translates Scriptures into 

Gothic, 208. 
Ul'pian, Roman jurist, 189. 
Ulys'ses, 67 ; see Odysseus. 
Union, Evangelical, 397. 
Universities, rise of, in Middle Ages, 

301. 
Urban II., Pope, his summons to 

the Crusades, 269. 
Utrecht, Peace of, 436. 
Utrecht Union, 392. 



Va'lens, Roman emp. ; invasion of 
the Huns and Goths ; defeat and 
death of V., 196. 



Valentin'ian I., Roman emp., 196. 

III., Roman emp., 211. 
Vale'rian, Roman emp., 191. 
Valley Forge, 457. 
Valois (val'wa'), house of, 304. 
Van Buren, Martin, President, 549. 
Vandals, 209 ; conquer Africa, 

211. 
Van Dyck, brothers, Dutch painters, 

373. 
Var'una, 21. 

Vas'co da Ga'ma, Portuguese dis- 
coverer, 366. 
Vauban (vo'boN'), French military 

engineer, 426. 
Vedas (va'da), the, sacred books of 

India, 21. 
Velasquez (va-las'keth), Spanish 

painter, 373. 
Venice, 327, 328, 329; ceded to 

Italy, 522, 523. 
Ve'nus, 65. 
Vera Cruz (va'rakroos), captured, 

549. 
VercePlae, battle of, 149. 
Vergil, Roman poet, 168. 
Vernet (ver'na'), 503, 564. 
Veronese (va-ro-na'za),Paul, Italian 

painter, 373. 
Ver'res, impeachment of, 156. 
Versailles (versalz'), 425, 427. 
Vervins, Peace of, 396. 
Vespa'sian, Roman emp., erects 

the Colosseum, captures Jerjisa- 

lem, 182. 
Vespucci, Amerigo (ves-poot'chee, 

a-ma-ree'go), Florentine explorer, 

369. 
Vicksburg, capture of, 554. 
Vico (vee'ko), Italian writer, 461. 
Victor Emmanuel II., 505, 517, 619 ; 

k. of Italy, 519, 527. 
Victoria becomes Queen of Eng- 
land, 512. 
Vienna, Congress of, 492, 494. 



598 



INDEX 



Virginia, named from Queen Eliza- 
beth, 417; settlement, 418, 420; 
secedes, 551. 

Visconti (ves-kon'tee) and Sforza 
(sfort'sa), the, 321. 

Visigoths, 209 ; crowded by the 
Huns into Roman territory ; de- 
feat Valens ; checked by Theodo- 
sius I., 208 ; 209, 210, 211, 212, 
213, 215. 

Vitel'lius, Roman emp., 181. 

Volta, Italian electrician, 461. 

Voltaire (vol-ter'), 444, 460. 

Von Kaulbach (fon kowl'baK), 563. 

Von Moltke (fon molt'keh), Ger- 
man general, 523, 524. 

Von Schadow (fon sha-do), 563. 



W 

Wagner, 564. 

Wagram, battle of, 487. 

Wahlstatt (ual'stat), battle of, 283. 

Wales, joined to England ; Prince 
of, 310. 

Wallace, William, 307, 310. 

Wallenstein (wol'en-sthi), German 
general, 397 ; defeated in battle 
of Ltitzen, 398 ; assassinated, 
400. 

Walpole (wol'pol), Robert, first 
Prime Minister, 437. 

Walter the Penniless, 272. 

War of 1812, 500. 

Warsaw, capture of, 447. 

Washington, George, 450, 455 ; re- 
signed his commission ; chosen 
President, 459 ; Cabinet ; parties, 
496 ; retirement and death, 498. 

Waterloo', battle of, 493. 

Watt, James, Scotch inventor, 462, 
661. 

Wat Tyler, 316. 

Weber (ua'ber), 564. 

Webster, Daniel, 547, 548. 



Weir (weer), 564. 

Weissenburg (vi-sen-booro), battle' 
of, 524. 

Welfs and Waiblings, Hohenstau- 
j fen line, 274, 

Wellington, Duke of, 489, 491, 493. 

Welsh, the, 216. 

Wenceslaus, k. of Germany, 325. 

Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, 412. 

Wesley, John, 448. 

West, American painter, 503. 

Westminster Assembly, 413. 

Westpha'lia, Peace of, conse- 
quences, 401. 

Wheaton, 562. 

Wheat 'stone, 561. 

Whigs, in England ; origin of name, 
429, 430 ; in United States, 547. 

Whitney, Eli, 497. 

Whittier, 563. 

Wilderness, battle of, 555. 

William I., the Conqueror, Duke of 
Normandy, k. of England, 248- 
251 ; descendants of, 285 ; 288. 
II., Rufus, 288. III., and Mary, 
431. IV., 512. 

William I., of Germany, 521-525, 
533. II., 533. 

William, Lord Russell, 430. 

William, Prince of Orange, 391, 392. 

William and Mary College founded, 
452. 

Williams, Roger, 419. 

Wilmot Proviso, 549. 

Wintlirop, John, 419. 

Wit'en-a-ge-mot', the, 217, 251. 

Wolfe, General, 451. 

Wordsworth, English poet, 502. 

World's Fair, see Columbian Exhi- 
bition. 

Worth (iiort), battle of, 524. 

Wren, Sir Christopher, architect of 
St. Paul's Cathedral, 429. 

Wyclif, John, translates the Bible 
into English, 316. 



INDEX 



599 



X j 

Xenophon (zen'o-fgii), general and j Z6d'eki'ali, 44 

historian, 03, 95. 
Xerxes (zerks'eez), war with Greece 

78, 79. 95. 



Yale College founded, 452. 
York, house of, 352. 



Ze'la, battle of, 163. 

Zeus (zus), 61, 65. 

Zeuxis (zuks-is), Greek painter, 88. 



Ziska of Bohemia. 325. 

Zollverein (ti^ol'ferin'), or customs 
union, in Germany. 511. 

Zo-ro-3,s'ter, 54. 

Zwingli (tsuing'lee), Swiss re- 
former, 381. 



